INNOVATIONS ONLINE INFORMATION SYSTEM

How to put AdSense and Google Affiliate Network in your blog's sidebar

2011-06-12T14:33:00.000-07:00

Assuming you have already signed up and been approved for a Google AdSense account, you should be able to log in here. Once you're signed in, click the AdSense Settings tab near the top of the page. To cut right to the chase, focus on these steps:

Choose Your Ad Layout - To fit ads in your sidebar, it's best to choose one of the following ad layouts.

Button (125x125)
Skyscraper (120x600)
Wide Skyscraper (160 x 600)
Vertical Banner (120 x 240)
Small Rectangle (180x150)

Choose a color palette - They are very cleverly named but it's really just a matter of your preference.
Copy your AdSense code - At the bottom of the page, there's a box with code in it. Highlight all of that code and copy it.
Paste the code somewhere - Notepad or Text Edit or something like that is a good place for now.
Go to Blogger.com and sign in - Choose the blog you want to put ads on and click the template tab.
This is less of a step and more of a precaution - Copy your entire Blogger template and save it in Notepad or Text Edit just in case.
Find the place in your template that says this; you might have to scroll down pretty far:
Paste the AdSense code you saved earlier right after that part.
```
PUT YOUR ADSENSE CODE HERE!
```
Save your template changes and republish your blog.

How to put Google Affiliate Network links in your blog's sidebar

If you're new to Google Affiliate Network and not too familiar with making modifications to your blog's template, you can follow these instructions for placing Google Affiliate Network links in your blog's sidebar (using the Minima template as an example).

Once you sign up and are approved for a Google Affiliate Network account, you can sign in here to view your account. Once you're signed in, click the Links tab near the top of the page. Select which advertiser's links you want to work with, and then follow these steps:

Choose your links - In the 'Links' section of your profile, select the advertiser whose links you want to use. Click Get Links in the Action drop down menu next to the advertiser's name. Click either the Text Links or the Image Links tab to view your options in each category. To fit ads in your sidebar, it's best to choose one of the following dimensions for an image link:
```
Button (125x125)
Skyscraper (120x600)
Wide Skyscraper (160 x 600)
Vertical Banner (120 x 240)
Small Rectangle (180x150)
```
Copy your Affiliate link HTML - Just beneath your desired link, click Get HTML. A box with code in it will appear. Highlight all of that code, then copy and paste it into Notepad, Text Edit, or a similar program.
Sign in to Blogger - Choose the blog you want to put ads on and click the Template tab.
Caution - Copy your entire Blogger template and save it in Notepad or Text Edit just in case.
Find the place in your template that says:
Paste the Affiliate link HTML you saved earlier right beneath that place in the template:
```
PUT YOUR AFFILIATE LINK HTML HERE!
```
Save your template changes and republish your blog.

COMPREHENSIVE COMPUTER TRAINING FOR BEGINNERS

2011-04-21T00:34:00.001-07:00

TABLE OF CONTENT

(PHASE ONE)

Table of Content

Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 What is Computer

1.2 Brief History of Computers

1.3 Advantages of Computers

1.4 Disadvantages of Computers

1.5 Classifications of Computers

1.5.1 Classifications by Signal

1.5.2 Classifications by Size

1.5.3 Classifications by Purpose

1.5.4 Classifications by Generation

1.6 Components of Computer

Chapter two

2.0 Introduction

2.1 Introduction to Operating System

2.2 Microsoft Window Operating System

2.3 Window XP

2.4 Window XP Operations

Chapter three

3.0 Introduction.

3.1 Computer Networks

3.2 Classifications of Computer Networks

3.3 Types of Networks

3.4 Window Operations in a Network Environment

Chapter Four

4.0 Introduction

4.1 Viruses

4.2 Virus Prevention Tips

4.3 Anti-virus software and other preventive measures

Conclusion and Recommendation

References

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction:

Right from millennial past, when the early humans emerged from bartering into basic buying and selling, they have needed an easier way to calculate the value of products. This chapter focuses on what is computer, its history from early days, advantages and

Disadvantages of using computers. Also covered in this chapter are: the classifications of computers and the different components that make up a computer system

1.1 What is Computer?

Computer is an electronic device that has the ability to accept, store, retrieve, and process data following sets of instructions to give an efficient output called information. In other words, Computer accepts input from input devices; process it using processing unit and give output (information) via output devices as show in the block diagram below:

Input Processing Unit Output

Output Device

Processed data

Input device

1.2 Brief History of Computers

In the Beginning: The history of computers starts out about 2000 years ago, at the birth of the abacus, a wooden rack holding two horizontal wires with beads strung on them. When these beads are moved around, according to programming rules memorized by the user, all regular arithmetic problems can be done. Another important invention around the same time was the Astrolabe, used for navigation. Blaise Pascal is usually credited for building the first digital computer in 1642. It added numbers entered with dials and was made to help his father, a tax collector. In 1671, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented a computer that was built in 1694. It could add, and, after changing some things around, multiply. Leibniz invented a special stepped gear mechanism for introducing the addend digits, and this is still being used. The prototypes made by Pascal and Leibniz were not used in many places, and considered weird until a little more than a century later, when Thomas of Colmar (A.K.A. Charles Xavier Thomas) created the first successful mechanical calculator that could add, subtract, multiply, and divide. A lot of improved desktop calculators by many inventors followed, so that by about 1890, the range of improvements included:

Accumulation of partial results

Storage and automatic reentry of past results (A memory function)

Printing of the results

Each of these required manual installation. These improvements were mainly made for commercial users, and not for the needs of science.

In 1943 development begins on the Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC) in earnest at Penn State. Designed by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert of the Moore School, they get help from John von Neumann and others. In 1944, the Havard Mark I is introduced. Based on a series of proposals from Howard Aiken in the late 1930's, the Mark I compute complex tables for the U.S. Navy. It uses a paper tape to store instructions and Aiken hires Grace Hopper("Amazing Grace") as one of three programmers working on the machine. Thomas J. Watson Sr. plays a pivotal role involving his company, IBM, in the machine's development.

Early in 1945, with the Mark I stopped for repairs, Hopper notices a moth in one of the relays, possibly causing the problem. From this day on, Hopper refers to fixing the system as "debugging". The same year Von Neumann proposes the concept of a "stored program" in a paper that is never officially published.

Work completes on ENIAC in 1946. Although only three years old the machine is woefully behind on technology, but the inventors opt to continue while working on a more modern machine, the EDVAC. Programming ENIAC requires it to be rewired. A later version eliminates this problem. To make the machine appear more impressive to reporters during its unveiling, a team member (possibly Eckert) puts translucent spheres (halved ping-pong balls) over the lights. The US patent office will later recognize this as the first computer.

The next year scientists employed by Bell Labs complete work on the transistor (John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley receive the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956), and by 1948 teams around the world work on a "stored program" machine. The first, nicknamed "Baby", is a prototype of a much larger machine under construction in Britain and is shown in June 1948.

The impetus over the next 5 years for advances in computers is mostly the government and military. UNIVAC, delivered in 1951 to the Census Bureau, results in a tremendous financial loss to its manufacturer, Remington-Rand. The next year Grace Hopper, now an employee of that company proposes "reusable software," code segments that could be extracted and assembled according to instructions in a "higher level language." The concept of compiling is born. Hopper would revise this concept over the next twenty years and her ideas would become an integral part of all modern computers. CBS uses one of the 46 UNIVAC computers produced to predict the outcome of the 1952 Presidential Election. They do not air the prediction for 3 hours because they do not trust the machine.

IBM introduces the 701 the following year. It is the first commercially successful computer. In 1956 FORTRAN was introduced (proposed 1954, it takes nearly 3 years to develop the compiler). Two additional languages, LISP and COBOL, are added in 1957 and 1958. Other early languages include ALGOL and BASIC. Although never widely used, ALGOL is the basis for many of today's languages.

With the introduction of Control Data's CDC1604 in 1958, the first transistor powered computer, a new age dawns. Brilliant scientist Seymour Cray heads the development team. This year integrated circuits are introduced by two men, Jack Kilby and John Noyce, working independently. The second network is developed at MIT. Over the next three years computers begin affecting the day-to-day lives of most Americans. The addition of MICR characters at the bottom of checks is common.

In 1961 Fairchild Semiconductor introduces the integrated circuit. Within ten years all computers use these instead of the transistor. Formally building sized computers are now room-sized, and are considerably more powerful. The following year the Atlas becomes operational, displaying many of the features that make today's systems so powerful including virtual memory, pipeline instruction execution and paging. Designed at the University of Manchester, some of the people who developed Colossus thirty years earlier make contributions.

On April 7, 1964, IBM introduces the System/360. While a technical marvel, the main feature of this machine is business oriented...IBM guarantees the "upward compatibility" of the system, reducing the risk that a business would invest in outdated technology. Dartmouth College, where the first network was demonstrated 25 years earlier, moves to the forefront of the "computer age" with the introduction of TSS(Time Share System) a crude(by today's standards) networking system. It is the first Wide Area Network. In three years Randy Golden, President and Founder of Golden Ink, would begin working on this network.

Within a year MIT returns to the top of the intellectual computer community with the introduction of a greatly refined network that features shared resources and uses the first minicomputer (DEC's PDP-8) to manage telephone lines. Bell Labs and GE play major roles in its design.

In 1969 Bell Labs, unhappy with the direction of the MIT project, leaves and develops its own operating system, UNIX. One of the many precursors to today's Internet, ARPANet, is quietly launched. Alan Keys, who will later become a designer for Apple, proposes the "personal computer." Also in 1969, unhappy with Fairchild Semiconductor, a group of technicians begin discussing forming their own company. This company, formed the next year, would be known as Intel. The movie Colossus:The Forbin Project has a supercomputer as the villain. Next year, The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes was the first feature length movie with the word computer in the title. In 1971, Texas Instruments introduces the first "pocket calculator." It weighs 2.5 pounds.

With the country embroiled in a crisis of confidence known as Watergate, in 1973 a little publicized judicial decision takes the patent for the computer away from Mauchly and Eckert and awards it to Atanasoff. Xerox introduces the mouse. Proposals are made for the first local area networks.

In 1975 the first personal computer is marketed in kit form. The Altair features 256 bytes of memory. Bill Gates, with others, writes a BASIC compiler for the machine. The next year Apple begins to market PC's, also in kit form. It includes a monitor and keyboard. The earliest RISC platforms become stable. In 1976, Queen Elizabeth goes on-line with the first royal email message.

During the next few years the personal computer explodes on the American scene. Microsoft, Apple and many smaller PC related companies form (and some die). By 1977 stores begin to sell PC's. Continuing today, companies strive to reduce the size and price of PC's while increasing capacity. Entering the fray, IBM introduces its PC in 1981(it's actually IBM's second attempt, but the first failed miserably). Time selected the computer as its Man of the Year in 1982. Tron, a computer-generated special effects extravaganza is released the same year.

1.3 Advantages of Computers

Today, computers are no longer specialized tools used only by scientists or engineers. They do not hum behind sealed, glass walls in climate-controlled environments. Computer systems are everywhere—in places you cannot see or would not expect to find them. They are a fact of life, a common thread that ties together our education, work, and home life. With computers touching nearly every facet of our lives, the issue of computer literacy becomes important.

The following are some cited importance of the computer systems:

a) It makes work easier and faster thus saves time.

B) It can hold huge amount of information

c) It is reliable

d) It improves information management.

e) Accuracy.

f) It never gets tired

g) It can do about anything if properly programmed

h) It improves the flow of information

i) It brings about Communication

1.4) Disadvantages of Computers

Despite all the advantages of using computers, however, there are also disadvantages. Although it may be hard to believe that a PC can pose a threat to its user. Consider the caution we exercise when using any other appliance or tool. We carefully choose the television programs that children watch to ensure that they do not view inappropriate material. When operating a vehicle or a power tool, we are cautious to protect not only ourselves but also those around us.

It also makes sense to be cautious when using a computer, especially if you use the Internet regularly. Careless use of computers can result in physical injuries. Careless use of the Internet can result in a loss of privacy. These issues affect individual computer users every day and may affect you directly or indirectly, whether they work with computers in business or use them at home or school

Any office worker will tell you that sitting at a desk all day can become extremely uncomfortable. Sitting all day and using a computer can be even worse. Not only does the user's body ache from being in a chair too long, but hand and wrist injuries can result from keyboarding or from using a mouse for long periods, and eyes can become strained by staring at a monitor. Such injuries can be extreme, threatening the victim's general health and ability to work.

Much is being done to make computers easier, safer, and more comfortable to use. Ergonomics, the study of the physical relationship between people and their tools--such as their computers--addresses these issues. Thanks to the publicity that computer-related injuries have received over the past decade, most people now recognize the importance of ergonomically correct computer furniture and proper techniques for using the computer. (The term ergonomically correct means that a product is designed to work properly with the human body, reducing the risk of strain, stress, or other types of injuries.).

Computer cannot think on his own like humans do. It depends on instructions given to it by the user; if the Human mind is evil, it can use the computer to commit crime, just like Robbers do with guns. If you fed garbage into the computer, you will get garbage in return and so goes the slogan ‘GIGO’ Garbage in Garbage out.

1.5 Classification of Computers.

Computers could be classified based on the following criteria: type of Signal process, physical size, purpose of the computer and finally by generations.

1.5.1 Classification by Signal.

Based on the type of signal processed, Computer could be classified as:

a) Analog: An analog computer (spelled analogue in British English) is a

Form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.

A machine or electronic circuit designed to work on numerical data represented by some physical quantity (e.g. rotation or displacement) or electrical quantity (e.g. voltage or charge) which varies continuously, in contrast to digital signals which are either 0 or 1, example, the turning of a wheel or changes in voltage can be used as input. Analogue computers are said to operate in real time and are used for research in design where many different shapes and speeds can be tried out quickly. A computer model of a car suspension allows the designer to see the effects of changing size, stiffness and damping.

b) Digital:

c) Hybrid: Hybrid computers are computers that comprise features of analog computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller and provides logical operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver of differential equations.

Hybrid computers can be used to obtain a very good but relatively imprecise 'seed' value, using an analog computer front-end, which is then fed into a digital computer iterative process to achieve the final desired degree of precision. With a three or four digit, highly accurate numerical seed, the total digital computation time necessary to reach the desired precision is dramatically reduced, since many fewer iterations are required. Example Polish Hybrid computer WAT 1001.

1.5.2 Classification by Sizes

Here we are going to introduce different classifications of computers one by one. We will discuss what are in classifications and what job they perform.

Super computer

The biggest in size, the most expensive in price than any other is classified and known as super computer. It can process trillions of instructions in seconds. This computer is not used as a PC in a home neither by a student in a college.

Governments specially use this type of computer for their different calculations and heavy jobs. Different industries also use this huge computer for designing their products.

In most of the Hollywood’s movies it is used for animation purposes. This kind of computer is also helpful for forecasting weather reports worldwide.

Mainframes

Another giant in computers after the super computer is Mainframe, which can also process millions of instruction per second and capable of accessing billions of data.

This computer is commonly used in big hospitals, air line reservations companies, and many other huge companies prefer mainframe because of its capability of retrieving data on a huge basis.

This is normally too expensive and out of reach from a salary-based person who wants a computer for his home.

This kind of computer can cost up to thousands of dollars.

Minicomputer

This computer is next in line but less offers less than mainframe in work and performance. These are the computers, which are mostly preferred by the small type of business personals, colleges, etc.

Microcomputer (Personal computers)

Almost all the computer users are familiar with the personal computers. They normally know what the personal computer is and what its functions are.

This is the computer mostly preferred by the home users. These computers are lesser in cost than the computers given above and also, small in size; they are also called PCs in short for Personal computers.

This computer is small in size and you can easily arrange it to fit in your single bedroom with its all accommodation. Today this is thought to be the most popular computer in all.

Notebook computers

Having a small size and low weight the notebook is easy to carry to anywhere. A student can take it with him/her to his/her school in his/her bag with his/her book.

This is easy to carry around and preferred by students and business people to meet their assignments and other necessary tasks.

The approach of this computer is also the same as the Personal computer. It can store the same amount of data and having a memory of the same size as that of a personal computer. One can say that it is the replacement of personal desktop computer.

1.5.3 Classification by Purpose:

Under this, Computer could be classified as: Special Purpose or General Purpose Computers.

Special Purpose Computers: Designed to perform a limited number of specific actions. Examples: Calculator, Digital Watch, Microwave Control Panel, Automotive Computers, Telephone Switching Computers. Such computers are so numerous and prevalent, it’s hard to image what a day without computers might be like. Special purpose computers outnumber general purpose computers at least 40:1.

General Purpose Computer: Designed to perform an unlimited number of arbitrarily selected actions (programmable) Examples: The personal computer, the mainframe computer.

1.5.4 Classification by Generation:

First Generation of Computers (1948 — 1958)

The element base of the machines of this generation was presented by electronic lamps - diodes and triodes. They were of significant size, consumed much power, had a low reliability of operation and weak software. Their speed did not exceed 2 — 3 thousands operations per second, the capacity of the main memory — 2К or 2048 machine words (1K=1024) in length 48 binary digits. In 1958 the machine M-20 with the memory of 4К and the speed about 20 thousands operations per second appeared.

This period was the beginning of commercial application of electronic computers for data processing. In computers of this time the electro vacuum lamps and peripheral memory on a magnetic drum were used. They were entangled by wires and had access time 1х10 -3 с. The industrial systems and compilers have not appeared yet. At the end of this period there began production of devices with the memory on magnetic cores. The reliability of the COMPUTERS of this generation was the lowest.

Second Generation of Computers :( 1959 — 1967)

The element base of the machines of this generation was semiconducting devices. The machines intended for solution of the various labour-consuming scientific and technical tasks, and also for control of technological processes in production. The appearance of semiconducting units in the electronic circuits essential increased the capacity of the main memory, reliability and speed of the COMPUTERS. The size, weight and power consumption have decreased. With the appearance of machines of the second generation the field of use of electronic computer facilities extended, considerably mostly at the expense of development of the software. The specialized machines, for example the COMPUTER for solution of the economic tasks, for control of production process also by systems of transmission of the information etc. appeared. The COMPUTERS of the second generation include:

THE COMPUTER М-40, -50 for systems of anti-missile defence;

Ural-11, -14, -16 - COMPUTER of general purpose oriented to solution of the nonproduction and economical tasks;

Minsk -2, -12, -14 for solution of engineering, scientific and designing tasks of mathematical and logical character;

Minsk - 22 -22 are intended for solution of the scientific, technical and economical tasks;

COMPUTER - 3 -4, -6 general computers oriented to solution of complex tasks of science and engineering;

М-20, -220, -222 general computers oriented to solution of the complex mathematical tasks;

WORLD-1 the small electronic digital computer intended for solution of a wide range of the engineering-designing mathematical tasks,

"NAIRI" a general computer, intended for solution of a wide range of engineering, scientific and technical, and also some types of economical and accounting-statistical tasks;

Ruta-110 mini COMPUTER of general purpose.

The period mentioned is characterized by wide application of transistors and advanced circuits of memory on cores. Great attention was given to creation of the system software, compilers and means of input-output. At the end of indicated period the universal and effective enough compilers for COBOL, FORTRAN and other languages have appeared.

The value of access time 1х10 was achieved already -6 S, though the most part of units of the computer was still connected by wires.

The computers of this period were successfully applied in the areas connected to processing of sets of data and problem solving, usually requiring the execution of routine operations of factories, in institutions and banks. These computers worked by principle of package data processing. Essentially, thus the manual methods of data processing were copied. The new possibilities given by computers practically were not used.

In this period there appeared a profession of an expert on computer science, and many universities began to give possibility of getting education in this area.

Third Generation of Computers (1968 — 1973):

The element base of the COMPUTER - small integrated circuits (SIC). The machines intended for a wide use in various areas of science and engineering (accounts, production management, sliding objects control etc.). Due to the integrated circuits it was possible essentially to improve technical-operating performances of the COMPUTER. For example, the machines of the third generation in comparison with the machines of the second generation have greater size of the main memory, the speed has increased, the reliability has risen, but power consumption and space occupied and weight have decreased.

The machines of the third generation include "Dnieper-2", COMPUTER of the Uniform System (EU - 1010, EU - 1020, EU - 1030, EU - 1040, EU - 1050, EU - 1060 and some their intermediate modifications - EU - 1021 etc.), WORLD - 2, "NAIRI-2" and a number of others.

The characteristic feature of the given period was the sharp decrease of the prices on the hardware. It was achieved mainly at the expense of the use of the integrated circuits. The usual electrical connections with the help of wires were built in a chip. It allowed to receive access time up to 2х10 -9 S. At this period in the market the user-friendly workstations have appeared. The further progress in the development of computer facilities was connected while the development of semiconducting memory, liquid crystal screens and electronic memory. At the end of this period there was a commercial break in the field of microelectronic technology.

The increased productivity of computers and just appeared multi machine systems gave possibility of implementation of such new tasks, which were complex enough and frequently resulted in insoluble problems at their program implementation. There began to speak about “the crisis of the software". Then the effective methods of software engineering have appeared. The creation of new software products now even more often was based on methods of planning and special methods of programming.

This period is connected with rapid development of computers of real time. The tendency has appeared, according to which in the tasks of control alongside with the large computers there is a place and for the use of small machines. So, the minicomputer appeared to cope with control functions over complex plants, where the large computer frequently refuses to work. The complex control systems are divided thus into subsystems, each uses a minicomputer. The tasks of planning in the hierarchical system are assigned to the large computer of real time with the purpose of control coordination over subsystems and processing of central data about the object.

Out the beginning software for small computers was absolutely elementary, however by 1968 the first commercial operating system of real time specially developed for them programming languages of a high level and the cross system have appeared. All this has ensured availability of small machines for a wide range of applications. Today it is hardly possible to find such industry, in which these machines would not be successfully applied in this or that form. Their functions in production are very diverse; so, it is possible to specify simple systems of data collection, automated test stands, and control system of processes. It is necessary to emphasize, that the managing computer now even more often interferes in the area of commercial data processing, where is applied to the solution of commercial tasks.

Minicomputers have begun to be applied to solution of the engineering tasks connected with designing. The first experiments which have shown efficiency of computers use as tools of designing are carried out.

The application of distributed computing systems became a basis for decentralizing problem solving connected with data processing of factories, in banks and other institutions. At the same time for the given period it is characteristic chronic storage of personnel prepared to work in the field of electronic computers. It especially concerns the tasks connected with designing of distributed computing systems and systems of real time.

Fourth Generation of Computers :( 1974 — 1982)

The element base of COMPUTERS - large integrated circuits (schemes) (BIC). The machines intended for sharp rise of productivity of work in science, production, management, public health services, and everyday life. The high degree of integration promotes increase of density of subroutine linkage of the electronic equipment, rise of its reliability that leads to increase of the speed of the COMPUTER and lowering of its cost. All this renders essential effect on logical structure (architecture) the COMPUTER and on its software.

To this generation it is possible to refer the COMPUTER of EU: EU - 1015, -1025, -1035, -1045, -1055, -1065 (“ a Number 2 ”), -1036, -1046, -1066, СМ-1420, -1600, -1700, all personal COMPUTERS (“ Electronics МС 0501 ”, “Electronics - 85”, “ISKRA - 226”, EU - 1840, -1841, -1842 etc.), and also other types and modifications. The multiprocessor computer complex "Elbrus" also refers to the COMPUTER of the fourth generation. "Elbrus - 1KB" had the speed up to 5.5 mln. Operations with a floating point per second, and the capacity of the main memory up to 64 Mb. At "Elbrus - 2" had the productivity up to 120 mln. Operations per second, the capacity of the main memory up to 144 Mb or 16 MWords (a word - 72 bits), maximum capacity of the channels of input-output - 120 Mb / sec.

Fifth Generation of Computer.

The Fifth Generation Computer Systems project (FGCS) was an initiative by Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry, begun in 1982, to create a fifth generation computer which was supposed to perform much calculation using massive parallelism. It was to be the end result of a massive government/industry research project in Japan during the 1980s. It aimed to create an "epoch-making computer" with supercomputer-like performance and usable artificial intelligence capabilities.

The term fifth generation was intended to convey the system as being a leap beyond existing machines. Computers using vacuum tubes were called the first generation; transistors and diodes, the second; ICs, the third; and those using microprocessors, the fourth. Whereas previous computer generations had focused on increasing the number of logic elements in a single CPU, the fifth generation, it was widely believed at the time, would instead turn to massive numbers of CPUs for added performance.

Opinions about its outcome are divided: Either it was a failure, or it was ahead of its time.

Components of Computer

Computer is made up of two components or parts: The Hardware and the software.

Hardware: is the physical, tangible device or components that may come either as an integral part of the computer or as an add-on component. Hardware could be primary or secondary.

Primary Hardware: These are those components of a computer system that must be present for the computer to carry out its basic functions. They include: the Keyboard, Mouse, System Unit and Monitor.

Secondary Hardware: these are those components whose absence would not stop the computer from performing its basic functions. They may be so needed by a user that they may seem like primary components. Thousands of components fall into this category; such as: printer, plotter, speaker, plotter, telephone, scanner, cameral microphone, Etc.

Furthermore, from the definition of computer above; hardware could be an input device, processing device or an output device

Storage sizes

v Byte 1204byte = 1kilobyte

v Kilobyte 1204kilobyte = 1megabyte

v Megabyte 1204megabyte = 1gigabyte

v Gigabyte

The average computer today will comprise any number of devices but the most essential are those ones that every operational computer must possess in order to function both effectively and efficiently. They include:

v The Keyboard

v The Mouse

v The system unit

v The monitor

Input Devices: These are devices that are used to send input (data/commands/messages) to the processing unit. They include: Keyboard, Mouse, Microphone, Scanner CD-ROM, Etc.

Output Devices: These are devices that the computer uses send/relay response to user requests. They include the Monitor, Printer, Speakers, Etc.

Input/output Devices: These are devices that serve both input and output functions. They include CD Writer, Floppy Drive, Hard Drive, Modem, Network Card Etc.

Processing Devices:

These are devices that are involved in information processing as requested by the user. They include: Processor, Memory, Battery, Chipset, Clock, Expansion Cards, Etc. All this are mainly inside the system unit (Processing Unit).

Software:

Is a general term used to describe a collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a computer system. The term includes application software such as word processors which perform productive tasks for users, system software such as operating systems, which interface with hardware to provide the necessary services for application software, programming Software for creating Software.

System Software:

It helps run the computer hardware and computer system. It includes operating systems, device drivers, diagnostic tools, servers, windowing systems, utilities and more. The purpose of systems software is to insulate the applications programmer as much as possible from the details of the particular computer complex being used, especially memory and other hardware features, and such as accessory devices as communications, printers, readers, displays, keyboards, etc. In total, allow a user to interact with the computer and its peripherals (associated equipment).

Application Software:

Application software or Applications are what most people think of when they think of software. Application software is often purchased separately from computer hardware. Sometimes applications are bundled with the computer, but that does not change the fact that they run as independent applications. Applications are almost always independent programs from the operating system, though they are often tailored for specific platforms. They allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (non-computer related) tasks.

Typical applications include industrial automation, business software, educational software, medical software, databases, office suite computer games Etc. Businesses are probably the biggest users of application software, but almost every field of human activity now uses some form of application software.

Programming Software:

They usually provide tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools include text editors, compilers, interpreters, linkers, debuggers, and so on. An Integrated development environment (IDE) merges those tools into a software bundle, and a programmer may not need to type multiple commands for compiling, interpreting, debugging, tracing, and etc., because the IDE usually has an advanced graphical user interface, or GUI.

Chapter Two

2.0 Introduction

This is the main focus of this training. This is necessary since it focuses on day to day operations carried out by users. Window XP basic operations are properly treated in this chapter.

2.1 Introduction to Operating System

An operating system (OS) is software that manages computer resources and provides programmers with an interface used to access those resources. An operating system processes system data and user input, and responds by allocating and managing tasks and internal system resources as a service to users and programs of the system. An operating system performs basic tasks such as controlling and allocating memory, prioritizing system requests, controlling input and output devices, facilitating computer networking and managing files. Operating systems can be found on almost anything made with integrated circuits, such as personal computers, internet servers, cell phones, music players, routers, switches, wireless access points, network storage, game consoles, digital cameras, sewing machines and telescopes.

In most cases, the operating system is not the first code to run on the computer at startup (boot) time. The initial code executing on the computer is usually loaded from firmware, which is stored in Flash ROM. This is sometimes called the BIOS or boot ROM. The firmware loads and executes the operating system kernel (usually from disk, sometimes over the network), and is usually responsible for the first graphics or text output the user sees onscreen.

Common contemporary desktop OS are Linux, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows and Solaris. Windows is most popular on desktops while Linux is most popular in server environments. Linux, Mac OS and MS Windows all have server and personal variants. With the exception of Microsoft Windows, the designs of each of the aforementioned OSs were inspired by, or directly inherited from, the UNIX operating system. Unix was developed at Bell Labs beginning in the late 1960s and spawned the development of numerous free and proprietary operating systems.

Our focus in this Training is on Window Operating System (Case Study: Window XP).

2.2 Microsoft Window Operating System

The Microsoft Windows family of operating systems originated as an add-on to the older MS-DOS operating system for the IBM PC. Modern versions are based on the newer Windows NT kernel that was originally intended for OS/2 and borrowed from VMS. Windows runs on x86, x86-64 and Itanium processors. Earlier versions also ran on the DEC Alpha, MIPS, Fairchild (later Intergraph) Clipper and PowerPC architectures (some work was done to port it to the SPARC architecture).

As of September 2007, Microsoft Windows holds a large amount of the worldwide desktop market share. Windows is also used on servers, supporting applications such as web servers and database servers. In recent years, Microsoft has spent significant marketing and research & development money to demonstrate that Windows is capable of running any enterprise application, which has resulted in consistent price/performance records and significant acceptance in the enterprise market.

The most widely used version of the Microsoft Windows family is Windows XP, released on October 25, 2001.

In November 2006, after more than five years of development work, Microsoft released Windows Vista, a major new operating system version of Microsoft Windows family which contains a large number of new features and architectural changes. Chief amongst these are a new user interface and visual style called Windows Aero, a number of new security features such as User Account Control, and few new multimedia applications such as Windows DVD Maker.

Microsoft has announced a new version codenamed Windows 7 will be released in late 2009 - mid 2010

2.3 Window XP

Windows XP is a line of operating systems developed by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business desktops, notebook computers, and media centers. The name "XP" stands for eXPerience. It was codenamed "Whistler", after Whistler, British Columbia, as many Microsoft employees skied at the Whistler-Blackcomb ski resort during its development. Windows XP is the successor to both Windows 2000 Professional and Windows Me, and is the first consumer-oriented operating system produced by Microsoft to be built on the Windows NT kernel (version 5.1) architecture. Windows XP was first released on October 25, 2001, and over 400 million copies were in use in January 2006, according to an estimate in that month by an IDC analyst. It is succeeded by Windows Vista, which was released to volume license customers on November 8, 2006, and worldwide to the general public on January 30, 2007.

The most common editions of the operating system are Windows XP Home Edition, which is targeted at home users, and Windows XP Professional, which has additional features such as support for Windows Server domains and two physical processors, and is targeted at power users and business clients. Windows XP Media Center Edition has additional multimedia features enhancing the ability to record and watch TV shows, view DVD movies, and listen to music. Windows XP Tablet PC Edition is designed to run the ink-aware Tablet PC platform. Two separate 64-bit versions of Windows XP were also released, Windows XP 64-bit Edition for IA-64 (Itanium) processors and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition for x86-64.

Windows XP is known for its improved stability and efficiency over the 9x versions of Microsoft Windows. It presents a significantly redesigned graphical user interface, a change Microsoft promoted as more user-friendly than previous versions of Windows. New software management capabilities were introduced to avoid the "DLL hell" that plagued older consumer-oriented 9x versions of Windows. It is also the first version of Windows to use product activation to combat software piracy, a restriction that did not sit well with some users and privacy advocates. Windows XP has also been criticized by some users for security vulnerabilities, tight integration of applications such as Internet Explorer 6 and Windows Media Player, and for aspects of its default user interface. Later versions with Service Pack 2, and Internet Explorer 7 addressed some of these concerns.

2.4 Window XP Operations:

Key Concepts:

Booting:

In computing, booting (booting up) is a bootstrapping process that starts operating systems when the user turns on a computer system. A boot sequence is the initial set of operations that the computer performs when it is switched on. The bootloader typically loads the main operating system for the computer. In other words, getting the computer ready for operations.

Reboot:

Hard reboot

A hard reboot (also known as a cold reboot, cold boot or cold start) is when power to a computer is cycled (turned off and then on) or a special reset signal to the processor is triggered (from a front panel switch of some sort). This restarts the computer without first performing any shut-down procedure. (With many operating systems, especially those using disk caches, after a hard reboot the file system may be in an "unclean" state, and an automatic scan of on-disk file system structures will be done before normal operation can begin.) It may be caused by power failure, be done by accident, or be done deliberately as a last resort to forcibly retrieve the system from instances such as a critical error or virus-inflicted DOS attack.

Soft reboot

A soft reboot (also known as a warm reboot) is restarting a computer under software control, without removing power or (directly) triggering a reset line. It usually, though not always, refers to an orderly shutdown and restarting of the machine.

Random reboot

Random reboot is a non-technical term referring to an unintended (and often undesired) reboot for which the cause is not immediately evident to the user. Such reboots may occur due to a multitude of software and hardware problems, such as triple faults.

As Windows XP/Vista has an option to skip its Blue Screen of Death (Blue Screens of Death in Windows XP/Vista offer no option of pressing any key and seeing if the computer continues functioning) and immediately restarts the computer in the event of a fatal error, users can be mistaken in thinking a Windows XP/Vista computer suffers from random rebooting.

Errors

In Windows, when an error occurs in the boot process, a Blue Screen of Death or a Black Screen of Death may occur.

Log On

To use the Computer, you must log on to a user account.

Log Off

To switch between user accounts, you must log off from the user account currently in use and then log on to the user account you want to use. You might also choose to ask patrons to log off when they are finished using the computer, so the next person to use the computer can choose the user account he or she wants.

When you log off from the computer, any changes made to the public profiles are generally erased, as are the temporary (cached) copies and recorded history of any Web pages visited. Some libraries encourage patrons to log off from the computer when they’re done using it, both to return the profile to its original state and to protect the privacy of patrons using the Internet.

Restart

When you restart the computer, Centurion Guard erases all data accumulated while the computer was in use, returning the computer to the state it was in the last time it was started up. Restarting the computer also often solves problems, such as programs freezing or the keyboard not responding.

Shut Down

You should shut down the computer every night or when the system is not in use to return the computer to its original state and reduce wear on the equipment.

Lock

You can lock the computer while logged on to a staff-only user account, then unlock the computer to continue using it. Locking the computer prevents anyone who doesn’t know the password of the current user account from using the computer.

This procedure is useful when you’re using a public computer as either staff or exec and need to leave for a moment but can’t log off. If you’re performing maintenance or working on more than one computer at once, by locking the computer you can be assured that nobody will cancel your download, delete your document, or alter how the computer works while you’ve disabled its security.

You can lock the computer while downloading antivirus software updates rather than having to stand guard over the computer while the process unfolds.

Logging On Is Different from Starting Up

Logging on to the computer is not the same thing as starting up the computer. You can log on to the computer without it having been shut down. To log on to the computer, you type a user name and, if required, a password for a user account. The Gates Library Computer has five public user accounts and two user accounts intended for library staff.

When you start up the computer, you turn on the power. After the computer is started up, you can log on. When you log off, the computer’s power remains on until you shut down the computer.

Restart

When you restart the computer, Centurion Guard erases all data accumulated while the computer was in use, returning the computer to the state it was in the last time it was started up. Restarting is nearly the same as shutting down the computer and starting it back up. There are technical differences between the two processes, but both accomplish the result of erasing the Centurion Guard cache and returning the computer to its original state. It takes less time to restart the computer than to shut it down and start it back up.

Procedures:

To Log On

Follow this procedure to log on to the computer. If the computer is already started up, skip Step 1.

1. Press the power button on the front of the computer, and wait for the computer to start up (Boot). The Log On to Windows dialog box appears.

2. Type the user name for the user account you want to use in the User name text box.

3. If the user account does not have a password, skip to Step 4. If the user account has a password, press the TAB key, and type the password in the Password text box.

4. Click OK.

To Log Off, Restart, or Shut Down

Follow this procedure to log off, restart, or shut down when you are logged on to the computer. If you are not logged on, click the Shutdown button in the Log On to Windows dialog box.

1. Click the Start button, and select Shut Down. The Shut Down Windows dialog box appears.

2. Click the downward-pointing arrow to the right of the text box, and select the option you want.

3. Click OK.

To Lock and Unlock the Computer

Follow this procedure to lock and unlock the computer. You can do this only while logged on to a user account with a password. There’s no point in locking the computer while logged on to a user account with no password, because any-one will be able to unlock it.

1. Holding down the CTRL and ALT keys, press the DEL key.

2. Click Lock Workstation.

3. To unlock the computer, press CTRL + ALT + DEL again.

4. Type the password of the user account you were using when you locked the Computer, and click OK.

Starting Window XP

Windows XP is an operating system that starts automatically when you turn on your computer. After starting Windows XP, a logon screen appears. The logon screen that appears depends upon your network identification and membership, and system setup.

If you are a member of a domain like Innovationsng_Domain, the Welcome to Windows screen appears, informing you that you need to use the [Ctrl+Alt+Delete] key combination to begin. Once Windows XP starts, you are then required to log on before you can access the computer. If you are not connected to a server (domain), you can log on to your local computer.

However, whether or not you are connecting to the network, you must supply a password if your system is set to use one. If you are not a member of a domain, Windows XP may start with the new Windows XP Welcome screen displaying the names of all users who have accounts set up on that system. To log on, you simply click your account name and enter a password, if you have one. In addition, the Welcome screen includes a picture next to each user’s name. The picture can be changed to another picture or even a photograph of each user.

Procedures

1. Turn on your computer.

2. Press [Ctrl+Alt+Delete].

3. Select the text in the User name box.

4. Type your user name, if necessary.

5. Select the Password box.

6. Type your password in the Password box, if necessary.

7. Select Options, if necessary.

8. Select the Log on to list.

9. Select the desired domain in this case “Innovationsng_Domain”.

10. Select OK.

11. Click in a blank area of the desktop to close the Start menu, if necessary.

EXPLORING THE WINDOWS XP DESKTOP

When you start Windows XP, the desktop appears. This desktop is similar in concept to an actual desktop. You can use the desktop to organize the tools and data you frequently use to accomplish your tasks.

Windows XP uses small pictures, called icons, to represent the programs, documents, and services available to your computer. This pictorial appearance is called a graphical user interface, or GUI. A default installation of Windows XP only displays the Recycle Bin on the desktop. However, your system may display other icons, if already customized.

Although some icons may appear automatically on the Windows XP desktop, you can add and remove icons for programs, files, folders, and printers as desired. Shortcuts, which are links to programs or files, may also appear as icons on the desktop. Shortcuts behave just like the other icons, but can be identified by the small arrow that appears on the icon’s lower left corner.

The desktop is completely customizable; you can make it look and work in the way that is most suitable for you. All the objects on the desktop have properties that you can view and modify. The desktop itself is also an object that you can customize by changing properties, such as the background color. When the desktop is active, you can point to default icons, such as the Recycle Bin, to see a pop-up description of the icon.

The taskbar, which appears at the bottom of the desktop by default, includes the Start button on the left, with its cascading menu structure, and the notification area on the right.

Fig 2.0: The Windows XP desktop (The picture used as the background may vary)

Folders organize your computer programs, services, and documents by grouping related objects. You can create and name your own folders. You can have it on your desktop too.

You can also use the desktop to display content that changes throughout the day, which is called active content. For example, you can have business, sports, or travel information from the Internet delivered to your desktop.

To know about an Icon/Folders

Procedure

1. Point to an icon to display the pop-up description about the icon.

2. Point to a blank area of the desktop to hide the description.

EXPLORING THE START MENU

The Start menu contains options to access programs, folders, files, and other resources. You can display the Start menu by clicking the Start button on the taskbar. Unlike the desktop, which may be covered by an open application, the Start button is part of the taskbar and is normally visible on your screen. Therefore, the Start menu provides a quick and easy way to open an object. Like any other object, the Start menu is also customizable.

The Start menu opens to display one or two columns, depending on your computer’s setup. In the two-column menu, the user’s name appears at the top of the Start menu and the Log Off and Shut Down buttons appear at the bottom. The All Programs menu also appears near the bottom of the Start menu. Pop-up description boxes appear when you point to items on the Start menu. The pop-up boxes may contain a description of the item or the location where the item is stored.

The Start menu contains a list of options you can use to work with Windows XP. Some menu options are followed by an arrow (►). The arrow indicates that a submenu is available for that item. When you point to the option, its submenu appears. Options without an arrow must be selected to open a window or program. When a menu option is followed by an ellipsis (…), selecting it opens a dialog box. A dialog box requires you to enter additional information before a command is executed.

The left side of the (two-column) Start menu contains three sections separated by horizontal divider lines. The middle section displays icons to frequently-used programs. When you open a program, Windows places an icon in this section so that you can easily open this program at a later time.

Some of the menu options are described in the following table:

Option	Function
Internet	This option opens your browser so that you can connect to the Internet.
E-mail	This option opens your e-mail editor.
All Programs	This option displays a cascading submenu of available programs.
My Documents	This option opens the My Documents folder, the default folder in many programs for storing files.
My Recent Documents	This option displays a list of previously opened documents.
My Computer	This option opens My Computer, a window that allows you to access files stored locally or on your network.
Control Panel	This option opens the Control Panel where you can customize various display, hardware, and connection settings.
Help and Support	This option opens Windows XP online Help.
Search	This option opens the Search Companion which allows you to find a folder, file, shared computer, multimedia files, items on the Internet, or names of people stored in an address book or located on the Internet.
Run	This option opens the Run dialog box, which allows you to enter a MS-DOS command to open a program, folder, document, or Internet resource.
Log Off	This option allows you to log off of your computer, leaving the computer running.
Shut Down	This option opens the Shut Down Windows dialog box, which contains commands to shut down, log off, or restart your computer.

Fig 1.1

Fig 1.2: The Start menu (Two-column version)

You can clear the list of frequently-used programs below the top divider line on the left side of the Start menu. You can also set the number of programs that can be displayed in this area. Newly installed programs appear on the Start menu with a background color. The background color disappears after the program is used.

Procedures

1. Select the Start button on the taskbar.

2. To view a description, point to an item on the Start menu.

3. To view installed programs, point to All Programs.

4. Continue selecting menu commands as necessary.

WORKING WITH FILES AND FOLDERS

In Windows XP, file management is based on files and folders. Files are stored in folders. Folders can also store other folders, as well as files, and can be created, renamed, moved, copied, and deleted. You can use two programs, My Computer and Windows Explorer, to explore the resources available to you. Both programs offer the same organizational tools to work with your folders and files.

Double-clicking a folder opens a folder window which displays the contents stored within that folder. Files inside folders appear as icons of spreadsheets, documents, or other objects to indicate their content. You can also start programs by double-clicking the icon representing the program, executable (*.exe), or associated data file stored on your computer’s hard drive, network drive, or any storage device.

Windows XP supports long file names up to 255 characters for naming files or folders. For example, XYZ Company Sales and Analysis is a legitimate file name and Pending Contracts is a legitimate folder name.

When you use files or folders with long file names on a system that does not support long file names, you will see the first six characters of the long file name followed by a tilde (~) and a sequential number. For example, My Memo 9-13 and My Memo 9-15 become Mymemo~1 and Mymemo~2.

Procedures

1. Open My Computer.

2. Double-click the storage device containing the folder you want to open.

3. Double-click the folder you want to open.

4. Continue opening folders as necessary.

5. Double-click the file you want to open.

CHANGING VIEWS IN A WINDOW

You can change the way in which the contents of a folder appear in a window. When you open a folder, Windows XP senses the contents of the folder and automatically selects the appropriate view. The default view for most folders is the Tiles view. In addition to displaying the file or folder name, this view shows additional information, such as file type, size, or author.

You can change the view by increasing or decreasing the size of icons displayed in a window, by displaying the icons in a list format, or by viewing icon details. The Icons and List views are both useful when there are numerous icons in the window. The Details view provides additional information relevant to the selected object. For example, this view is useful in determining the creation date of a file/folder or the size of a file.

The Thumbnails view is a special view used to preview graphics. If Windows XP recognizes the graphic file format, a miniature of the graphic appears in this view. If Windows XP does not recognize the format, an icon representing the program associated with that file type appears in the thumbnail area. The Thumbnails view is not available when My Computer first opens. The command appears when you display the contents of a drive or disk. Filmstrip view, available in some folders, is another view for working with graphics.

View changes only affect the current window. If you open a folder from a window with a view you have changed, the contents of the new folder window will display the Tiles view by default. In addition, a window will retain its view until you change it. If you change the Sales folder to the Details view and then close it, the Sales folder will open in the Details view the next time you access it.

You can also use the View menu to change the view in any window.

Procedures

1. Click the Views button on the Standard Buttons toolbar.

2. To display small icons, select the Icons command.

3. To display a column format, select the List command.

4. To display a column format with details, select the Details command.

5. To display large icons, select the Tiles command.

6. To display previews of graphics, select the Thumbnails command.

USING THE FOLDERS LIST

The Folders button on the Standard Buttons toolbar alternates the left pane of the folder window between the common tasks pane and the Folders list. The Folders list displays a hierarchy of items representing available resources; including folders, network resources, and peripherals, such as CD-ROM and/or CD-RW drives. The hierarchy in the Folders list appears in a tree view. As an item is selected and expanded in the tree, items that are stored within the selected item (i.e. files within a selected folder) appear in the right pane of the window.

Each item is graphically represented within the tree by an icon. If an item appears in the tree with a plus sign (+), it can be expanded to another level within the tree. If an item appears with a minus sign (-), then it has been fully expanded to view all items within it. If an item has no plus (+) or minus (-) sign, then it contains no folders; only files or nothing at all.

The items in the Folders list are hyperlinks. You only have to click an item once to display its contents in the right pane. While the common tasks pane makes it easy to perform tasks in a folder, the Folders list is a good way to navigate to a desired folder. The Folders button is a toggle. Once you have navigated to the desired folder, you can switch back to the common tasks pane by clicking the button again.

FIGURE 1.3: The Folders list displayed

Clicking the plus sign (+) for a drive or folder in the left pane does not display the contents of the item in the right pane, it only expands the item.

Procedures

1. Open My Computer.

2. Click the Folders button on the Standard Buttons toolbar to switch to the Folders list.

3. To expand an item in the tree, click the plus sign (+) to the left of the item.

4. Select the desired folder in the Folders list.

5. To collapse an item in the tree, click the minus sign (-) to the left of the item.

6. Click the Folders button on the Standard Buttons toolbar to switch to the common tasks pane.

SELECTING MULTIPLE ITEMS

You can select multiple items in a folder window, or any resource window. Once the items are selected, you can move, copy, open, delete, or print them at the same time. Multiple items are selected in the right pane only and all items must be located in the same window.

You can select multiple items with the [Shift] key or the [Ctrl] key. When you use the [Shift] key, all items between the first and last selected item are selected. When you use the [Ctrl] key, you can select non-adjacent items. Multiple items can be selected in any window view.

FIGURE 1.4: Selecting multiple items

Selecting a folder automatically selects all the items in the folder. The Details group in the common tasks pane displays the number of items selected and the total file size. You can select all the items in a folder by selecting the Edit menu and the Select All command.

Procedures

1. Open the drive or folder containing the items you want to select.

2. To select adjacent items, select the icon of the first item you want to select.

3. Hold the [Shift] key and click the last item you want to select.

4. Release the [Shift] key.

5. To deselect all items, click in a blank area of the window.

6. To select non-adjacent items, select the icon of the first item you want to select.

7. Hold the [Ctrl] key and click each item you want to select.

8. Release the [Ctrl] key.

RENAMING A FOLDER OR FILE

You can use the common tasks pane to rename a folder or file. Renaming changes both the title displayed with the object as well as the internal name used by the computer to recognize the object. You can quickly rename a folder or a file by selecting it, pressing the [F2] key, and typing a new folder name. You can also click once on a folder name that is already selected and edit the existing name. When renaming a file, you must be careful about extensions. If you rename an extension, the parent application may not be able recognize the file type and open the file.

Procedures

1. Open the folder/Drive containing the item you want to rename.

2. Select the folder or file you want to rename.

3. Select the Rename this folder or Rename this file task in the File and Folder Tasks group.

4. Enter a new name for the folder or file.

5. Press [Enter].

CREATING A NEW FOLDER

You can create folders within any folder or storage device window, such as from within the C: drive window of My Computer. You can use the Make a new folder task in the common tasks pane to create a new folder. However, you must deselect all window items to access this task. By default, new folders are named New Folder; however, you can change this name at any time.

You can also create a folder by right-clicking in a blank area in the right pane of the drive or folder window where you want to create the new folder. From the shortcut menu, select the New command and the Folder command. You can also use the menu bar to create a new folder by selecting the File menu, the New command, and the Folder command. When you create a new folder, Windows usually places the new name in edit mode so that you can immediately type a new name for the folder. If it does not place the name in edit mode, you can either use the Rename this folder task or click the New Folder name two times to rename the folder.

Procedures

1. Open the folder in which you want to create a new folder.

2. Deselect all window items.

3. Click the Make a new folder task in the File and Folders Tasks group.

4. Type a name for the folder.

5. Press [Enter].

COPYING/MOVING FILES AND FOLDERS

Windows XP provides many methods that can be used to move and copy files and folders. Moving a file or folder removes it from the original location and places it in a new location. Copying files or folders creates a copy of the item and places the copy in the new location.

You can move and copy items using the tasks on the common tasks pane. Depending upon the items selected the text of the task changes. The task text changes to Move this file or Copy this file when a single file is selected, Move this folder and Copy this folder when a single folder is selected, and Move the selected items and Copy the selected items when multiple files or folders are selected.

A move task opens the Move Items dialog box, while a copy task opens the Copy Items dialog box. Both dialog boxes provide options to browse resources and select a destination for the moved or copied items. In addition, you can create a new folder in any location during the process and then move or copy the items to the new folder.

You can use the Cut, Copy and Paste commands on the shortcut or Edit menus to move and copy files and folders.

Procedures

1. Open the drive or folder from which you want to move or copy items.

2. Display the common tasks pane, if necessary.

3. Select the first item you want to move or copy.

4. Continue selecting the items you want to move or copy.

5. To move or copy the selected item(s), select the appropriate Move... or Copy... task under the File and Folder Tasks group.

6. Select the drive where you want to move or copy the item(s).

7. Select the folder where you want to move or copy the item(s).

8. To create a new folder, select Make New Folder.

9. Select the desired folder.

10. Select Move or Copy.

DELETING FILES, FOLDERS, OR SHORTCUTS

In Windows XP, it is not immediately removed from your hard drive. It is moved to the Recycle Bin, which provides an area used to store deleted objects. The Recycle Bin appears as an icon on your desktop.0020Although no longer visible in their previous locations, deleted objects are not actually deleted from your hard drive until you empty the Recycle Bin. You can delete multiple items at the same time.

Note:

When you delete a shortcut, you are deleting only the shortcut and not the file or application with which it is associated. You can also delete items using the Delete this file, Delete this folder, or Delete these items tasks in the common tasks pane. Files that are deleted from a storage device other than your hard drive (such as files on a diskette or network drive) are not moved to the Recycle Bin, but are deleted directly and cannot be restored.

Procedures

1. Open the folder containing the item you want to delete.

2. Select the item you want to delete.

3. Press [Delete].

4. Select Yes to confirm the deletion.

USING WINDOWS EXPLORER

You can use either My Computer or Windows Explorer as a file management tool. Both programs are the same, except that My Computer opens with the common tasks pane displayed and Windows Explorer opens with the Folders list displayed. No matter which window you open, you can use the Folders button on the Standard Buttons toolbar to switch between panes. By default, Windows Explorer opens to your My Documents folder.

FIGURE 1.5: The Windows Explorer window

Procedures

1. Select the Start button on the taskbar.

2. Point to All Programs.

3. Point to Accessories.

4. Select Windows Explorer.

OR

1. Right Click on Start Button

2. Click on Explore.

SWITCHING BETWEEN OPEN WINDOWS

Windows XP allows you to open multiple windows. Then, you can work with the contents of those open windows, using them together to complete a task.

Although you can work with multiple windows, only one window can be active at a time. When one window is active, the other windows are inactive. The title bar of the active window is highlighted and usually appears in the forefront, while the title bar of an inactive window is dimmed.

Each open window displays a corresponding button on the taskbar. You can switch quickly between open windows by clicking the appropriate button on the taskbar. Since the taskbar is visible on your desktop by default, you can always see which programs or windows are open and quickly switch to them.

You can also use the keyboard to switch between open windows with the [Alt+Tab] key combination. Pressing this key combination displays a pane with icons of all open folders and applications. As you hold the [Alt] key and press the [Tab] key, different folders or applications are selected within the pane. A description of the selected icon appears at the bottom of the pane. When you release the [Alt] key, the selected icon, whether a folder or application, is restored and becomes the active window on your screen.

Procedures

1. Click the button on the taskbar with the title corresponding to the name of the item you want to access.

2. Switch to another opened item by clicking another button on the taskbar.

3. To switch windows using the keyboard, hold the [Alt] key and press the [Tab] key.

4. Continue holding the [Alt] key and press the [Tab] key to cycle through the icons for the item you want to open.

5. Release the [Alt] key.

SHOWING THE DESKTOP

You can minimize all open windows at the same time using the Show the Desktop command on the taskbar shortcut menu. Although you can minimize each window separately, the Show the Desktop command provides a quick method of returning to your desktop when you have several windows open. When all windows are minimized, the Show the Desktop command changes to the Show Open Windows command, which restores all your minimized windows to their previous settings.

Procedures

1. Right-click a blank area of the taskbar.

2. Select the Show the Desktop command.

3. To restore all minimized windows, right-click a blank area of the taskbar.

4. Select the Show Open Windows command.

USING GROUPED TASKBAR BUTTONS

The taskbar displays a button for each open program. Many applications, such as Office XP, display a taskbar button for each open document as well. With all these buttons, the taskbar can become quite crowded. Windows XP solves this problem with a new feature that groups similar taskbar buttons under one button, when the taskbar becomes too crowded. For example, you have My Computer and seven Word documents open. Windows will group all the Word taskbar buttons as one button. When you click the button, a list of all the open Word documents appears. To view a document, simply click the document name from the list.

Grouped taskbar buttons display the common application name plus the number of open windows. A grouped button for six Word documents would display the button name, 6 Microsoft Word. A grouped taskbar button is also distinguished by a small white triangle on the right side of the button.

Procedures

1. To display one of the grouped windows, select the group button on the taskbar.

2. Select the desired window.

When open windows are grouped under one taskbar button, you can use the shortcut menu for the group button to work with the whole group. All the open windows in the group can be cascaded, tiled horizontally or vertically, minimized, or closed at the same time.

Fig 2.5: Cascaded grouped windows

WORKING WITH THE SEARCH COMPANION

Windows XP includes many ways to find files and folders. Although you can use Windows Explorer or My Computer to browse folders until you locate a desired folder or file, Windows XP provides a search feature called the Search Companion. This feature allows you to locate files and folders stored on your computer or any network to which your computer may be connected. In addition, you can search for other computers on your network or for people in your address book or an Internet directory.

Selecting the Search command on the Start menu opens the Search Results window, with the Search Companion displayed in the left pane. (If the Classic Start menu is enabled, access this command by clicking the Start menu, then Search, and then For Files or Folders.) The Search Companion is where you enter your search criteria. Search criteria can be simple, such as entering part of a file name, text that you know is included in the file for which you are searching, and the drive or folders to search. You can also enter more detailed criteria such as the modification date or file size.

After performing a search, the right pane lists the search results. You can open a found file or folder from the right pane simply by double-clicking it. In addition, you can right-click the found item and select the desired action from the shortcut menu, for instance, printing the file.

You can also access the Search Companion from a folder window by clicking the Search button on the Standard Buttons toolbar. When you open the Search Companion from a folder window, only the current folder and its subfolders are searched, unless you change the search location.

When using the Search Companion to search for files or folders, the first step is to select the type of item for which you are searching. You can search for media files, such as pictures, music and video; documents, such as those created with word processing and spreadsheet programs; or all files and folders. The second step is to enter your search criteria. You can simply search for a file or folder by name, search for any file containing particular text, or search for a specific file containing specific text. Search options are context-sensitive. The Search Companion displays different search fields depending upon the type of item you are searching for. By default, Windows XP searches all folders and subfolders in the drive selected. If you want to search a particular folder, you can use the Browse option in the Look in list to select the folder. Once the criteria have been entered, you can perform the search. After the found files appear in the Search Results window, you have three choices. If you are satisfied with the results, you can select Yes, finished searching. This closes the Search Companion, but leaves the Search Results window open with the found files listed. If you are not satisfied with the results, you can use the links under No, refine this search and... to change your search criteria. Finally, if you want to conduct another search, you can select Start a new search.

Selecting the Start a new search link does not clear the previous search criteria. The search criteria are not cleared until you close the Search Companion.

When performing a search, you can use wildcards such as asterisks (). For example, if you want to search the C: drive for a file named Myfile.exe, you could specify the C: drive as the location and enter my.exe as the file name. The search would find all .exe files with names beginning with the characters my (e.g., myfile.exe, mysched.exe, and mytime.exe). If a file extension is not included, Windows XP finds all files containing the valid file name regardless of the extension (e.g., myfile.ini, myfile.exe, and myfile.com).

Fig 2.6: Search Companion

Procedures

1. Select the Start button on the taskbar.

2. Select Search. (If the Classic Start menu feature is enabled, you will also need to select For Files and Folders.)

3. If necessary, maximize the Search Results window.

4. Select the All files and folders link.

5. To search for files or folders with a specific name, type the name of the file or folder you want to locate.

6. To search for files containing specific text, select the A word or phrase in the file box.

7. Type the text for which you want to search.

8. Select the Look in list.

9. Select the drive or folder you want to search.

10. Select Search to perform the search.

11. Select the desired link to finish searching and close the Search Companion, refine the search, or start a new search.

USING ADVANCED SEARCH OPTIONS

The Search Companion includes links to advanced options to further narrow your search criteria and make your searches more productive. Using the links, you can search by date; file size, or other advanced options. These links include when was it modified? What size is it? And more advanced options.

The When was it modified? Link allows you to search by modification date. Date options include searching for files modified last week, last month, within the past year, or you can specify a date range. If you are not sure of the date, you can select don’t remember, which the default is. You can limit the search to files of a certain size using what size is it? Link. You can specify that files be of a maximum or minimum size, or a specific size. Then only the files that fall within the size parameters you specify will be found. The More advanced options link includes options for searching system folders, hidden files and folders, subfolders, and tape backups. By default, the Search system folders and Search subfolders options are selected. You can also perform a Case sensitive search. When this option is enabled, found files must contain the text entered in the A word or phrase in the file box, as well as match the case of the text.

Fig 2.7: advanced search options to search

When you select the Documents (word processing, spreadsheet, etc.) link, the When was it modified? Options appear by default.

Procedures

1. Open the Search Companion.

2. Select the desired type of search.

3. Expand the When was it modified? link.

4. Select the desired date option.

5. Expand the size is it? link.

6. Select the desired size option.

7. Expand the More advanced options link.

8. Select the desired options.

9. Select Search.

USING CUT/COPY AND PASTE

You can move or copy files and folders in Windows XP. When a folder is moved or copied, all folders and files that reside in it are moved or copied to the target destination as well. Moving the icon for a file or folder physically relocates the file to another location. Likewise, copying an icon for a file or folder creates a duplicate in another location.

Windows XP provides several methods for moving and copying items on the desktop. You can use the Cut, Copy, and Paste commands on the shortcut menu; drag an item with the right mouse button; or drag an item with the left mouse button.

When you use the Cut or Copy command, the folder or file is stored on the Windows Clipboard. The Windows Clipboard is an area of memory specified by Windows XP to temporarily hold information. You can then use the Paste command to paste the folder or file from the Windows Clipboard to the desired location. The Windows Clipboard can hold only one object; cutting or copying new information overwrites what is on the Windows Clipboard. Therefore, you must paste the current object on the Windows Clipboard before cutting or copying a new one.

When you copy a file or folder to the same location, Windows XP differentiates the copy from the original by adding the words Copy of… to the file or folder name.

You can use the [Ctrl] key to select multiple files to move or copy. You do not have to open the destination window when moving or copying files or folders. You can right-click the icon representing the destination location and then select the Paste command from the shortcut menu.

Procedures

1. Right-click the item you want to move or copy.

2. Select the Cut or Copy command.

3. Right-click the location to which you want to move or copy the desired item.

4. Select the Paste command.

VIEWING STORAGE DEVICE PROPERTIES

You can view the general properties of a storage device, such as your hard drive flash disk or a diskette, to determine the total capacity of the device and how much space is available. The General page in the Properties dialog box not only provides a graphic display of storage device capacity and available space, but also allows you to assign a label to the device. Setting a diskette’s label is useful when you are working with numerous files associated with one project or program stored across multiple diskettes. The Properties dialog box includes other pages with commands to access system tools. The pages available depend upon the storage device selected. In addition, certain features may only be available to users with Administrator rights.

Fig 2.8: Viewing hard drive properties

Depending upon your setup, you may be able to use the Properties dialog box for a folder to share the folder with other users. To do this, navigate to the desired folder using My Computer, right-click the folder, and then select the Sharing and Security or Properties command. On the Sharing page in the Properties dialog box, you can share the selected folder as desired and set permission levels.

Procedures

1. Open My Computer.

2. Right-click the storage device for which you want to view the properties.

3. Select the Properties command.

4. View the properties on the General page and then select OK.

COPYING FILES TO CDS

CDs provide a method of storing, transporting, or backing up your files. If you have a CD-ROM burner (CD-RW), you can copy files to a CD. The procedure for copying files to a CD is a two-step process. The first step is to select and copy the files. You use the same Copy task you use to copy files to another folder, except you designate the CD drive as the location to receive the files.

However, when you copy to a CD, files are not written immediately, as they are when you copy to a hard drive or network drive. Instead, they are held in a temporary storage area. If you have files in other folders you want to copy, you can repeat the copy procedure until you have gathered all the files you want to write to your CD. When you have finished copying all the files you want to write to the CD, you open the folder for your CD drive.

Your selected files are listed under the Files Ready to be written to CD category. You are now ready to use the Write these files to CD task, which opens the CD Writing Wizard. CDs are given a default volume name using the current date. If you change the name before writing your files, use the Delete temporary files task in the CD drive folder to remove all the files from the temporary storage area.

After files are copied to the temporary storage area for your CD, a balloon may appear in the notification area announcing that you have files waiting to be written. Clicking the balloon opens the folder for the CD drive. If you are using a combination DVD/CD-RW drive, you may

have to use the special CD software that came with your system instead of using the CD copy feature in Windows XP.

Procedures

1. In My Computer, open the folder containing the files you want to

2. Select the files you want to copy to a CD.

3. Select the appropriate Copy task in the file and folder task group

4. Select the CD drive.

5. Select Copy.

6. Click the My Computer link in the Other Places group.

7. Open the CD drive folder.

WORKING WITH THE START MENU

By default in Windows XP, the Start menu is a multiple column pane divided into several sections. The left side of the Start menu contains three sections; the pinned items list, the frequently used programs list, and the All Programs button. The sections are separated by divider lines. Entries in the pinned items list, above the first divider line, are fixed. You can add new shortcuts to this area. These shortcuts remain on the Start menu until you remove them.

Shortcuts to programs you have recently used appear below the first divider line, in the most frequently used program list. These shortcuts vary, depending on how many programs you use and how recently you opened the program. After reaching your limit of shortcuts to most frequently used programs, Windows XP removes older shortcuts as you continue to open new ones.

After a default installation of Windows XP, several shortcuts may appear in this area; including MSN Explorer, Windows Media Player, Windows Movie Maker, Tour Windows XP, and the Files and Settings Transfer Wizard.

The most frequently used programs list only displays shortcuts to registered programs. A recently opened program may take a few moments to appear on the Start menu. The default number of shortcuts on the Start menu to most frequently used programs is six programs. However, you can change this number.

Procedures

1. Open a registered program.

2. Close the program.

3. To use a shortcut on the most frequently used programs list, click start menu

4. Select the desired shortcut.

ADDING SHORTCUTS TO THE START MENU

The top section of the Start menu is reserved for fixed shortcuts. These shortcuts remain until you remove them. This feature works as described here only when the Classic Start menu, described later in this lesson, is not enabled.

This section of the Start menu is called the pinned items list. Shortcuts are added to this list using the Pin to Start menu command. This command appears when you right-click a program (executable) file or shortcut in any folder, on the desktop, or on the Start menu itself.

Fig 2.9: A shortcut added to the Start menu

As you increase the number of pinned shortcuts, Windows may remove shortcuts to recently used programs to make room for the new shortcuts.

Procedures

1. Open the menu or folder containing the program you want to add to the Start menu.

2. Right-click the desired program.

3. Select the Pin to Start menu command.

REMOVING SHORTCUTS FROM THE START MENU

You can easily remove shortcuts from the Start menu. Depending on how a shortcut was added to the Start menu, you can use either of two commands to remove it. If you right-click a shortcut from the most frequently used list, you can use the Remove from This List command to delete the shortcut. If you are removing a pinned shortcut, you have the choice of using either the Unpin from Start menu or Remove from This List command to delete the shortcut.

Procedures

1. Click the Start button on the taskbar.

2. Right-click the shortcut to the frequently used program you want to remove.

3. Select the Remove from This List command.

4. Right-click the pinned shortcut you want to remove.

5. Select the Unpin from Start menu command.

Chapter Three

3.0 Introduction:

Today as business models have grown, it become necessary that computers communicate with one another. Data has to be readily accessible among computer users especially in a relative large corporation like Eternit Ltd and Etex Group at large where different department oversee different aspect of company’s operation.

This chapter introduces trainee to basic concept of networking, classifications, its resources and window operations carried out in a networking environment.

3.1 Computer Network:

A Network is a group of Computers (two or more) connected together primarily for resource sharing and communication among users. Resources shared could be hardware like Printers, CD-ROM Etc or Software like MIS, FMS, PAYSTAR, ASSETWARE among others be used by Eternit Ltd, Sapele.

3.2 Classifications of Computer Networks:

Computer networks may be classified according to the scale: Personal area network (PAN), Local Area Network (LAN), Campus Area Network (CAN), Metropolitan area network (MAN), or Wide area network (WAN).

Computer networks can also be classified according to the hardware technology that is used to connect the individual devices in the network such as Optical fiber, Ethernet, Wireless LAN, HomePNA, or Power line communication.

Ethernets use physical wiring to connect devices. Often, they employ the use of hubs, switches, bridges, and routers.

Wireless LAN technology is built to connect devices without wiring. These devices use a radio frequency to connect.

Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which exist between the elements of the network, e.g., Active Networking, Client-server and Peer-to-peer (workgroup) architectures.

Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the network is based, such as Bus network, Star network, Ring network, Mesh network, Star-bus network, Tree or Hierarchical topology network, etc.

Network Topology signifies the way in which intelligent devices in the network see their logical relations to one another. The use of the term "logical" here is significant. That is, network topology is independent of the "physical" layout of the network. Even if networked computers are physically placed in a linear arrangement, if they are connected via a hub, the network has a Star topology, rather than a Bus Topology. In this regard the visual and operational characteristics of a network are distinct; the logical network topology is not necessarily the same as the physical layout.

Network could also be classified according to protocol not cover in this write up.

Types of Networks:

Below is a list of the most common types of computer networks in order of scale.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that may be used in a PAN are printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs or scanners. The reach of a PAN is typically within about 20-30 feet (approximately 6-9 Meters).

Personal area networks may be wired with computer buses such as USB. A wireless personal area network (WPAN) can also be made possible with network technologies such as IrDA and Bluetooth.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A network covering a small geographic area, like a home, office, or building. Current LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology. For example, a library will have a wired or wireless LAN for users to interconnect local devices (e.g., printers and servers) and to connect to the internet. All of the PCs are connected by category 5 (Cat5) cable, running the IEEE 802.3 protocol through a system of interconnection devices and eventually connect to the internet. The cables to the servers are on Cat 5e enhanced cable, which will support IEEE 802.3 at 1 Gbit/s.

The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (wide area networks), include their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer rate. IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 100 Gbit/s, and possibly 40 Gbit/s.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A Metropolitan Area Network is a network that connects two or more Local Area Networks or Campus Area Networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries of the immediate town, city, or metropolitan area. Multiple routers, switches & hubs are connected to create a MAN.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area (i.e. one city to another and one country to another country) and that often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

Global Area Network (GAN)

Global area networks (GAN) specifications are in development by several groups, and there is no common definition. In general, however, a GAN is a model for supporting mobile communications across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is "handing off" the user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial Wireless local area networks (WLAN)

Internetwork

Two or more networks or network segments connected using devices that operate at layer 3 (the 'network' layer) of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a router. Any interconnection among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may also be defined as an internetwork.

In modern practice, the interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol. There are at least three variants of internetwork, depending on who administers and who participates in them:

v Intranet

v Extranet

v Internet

Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the Internet. If connected to the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally protected from being accessed from the Internet without proper authorization. The Internet is not considered to be a part of the intranet or extranet, although it may serve as a portal for access to portions of an extranet.

Intranet

An intranet is a set of interconnected networks, using the Internet Protocol and uses IP-based tools such as web browsers, that is under the control of a single administrative entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to the rest of the world, and allows only specific users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of a company or other enterprise.

Extranet

An extranet is a network or internetwork that is limited in scope to a single organization or entity but which also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities (e.g. a company's customers may be given access to some part of its intranet creating in this way an extranet, while at the same time the customers may not be considered 'trusted' from a security standpoint).

Technically, an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network, although, by definition, an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN; it must have at least one connection with an external network.

Internet

A specific internetwork , consisting of a worldwide interconnection of governmental, academic, public, and private networks based upon the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by ARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense – also home to the World Wide Web (WWW) and referred to as the 'Internet' with a capital 'I' to distinguish it from other generic internetworks.

Participants in the Internet, or their service providers, use IP Addresses obtained from address registries that control assignments. Service providers and large enterprises also exchange information on the reach ability of their address ranges through the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).

3.4 Window Operations in a Network Environment

Browsing MY Network Places

Procedure:

1) Click on Start Button

2) Select My Network Places

3) From the task pane, select Entire Network

4) Double click Microsoft Windows Network

5) Double click the Domain/Workgroup. In this case; Eternit_Domain

6) Double click the desire Computer Name.

7) Access the desire shared resources.

Mapping a Network Drive

You may need to use files on a network computer or folder, but access to that network resource does not appear in My Computer. If you have permission to access the computer or folder, you can map a network drive so that you can quickly locate it in My Computer, Windows Explorer, or the Folders list.

When you map a network drive, you need to assign a letter to the drive and then provide the server name and share name of the folder in the appropriate format, such as \\innovati\iis or \\ademola\doc. You can also map to other network resources, such as printers.

By default the Reconnect at logon option in the Map Network Drive dialog box is selected. When enabled, this option allows you to reconnect to the drive each time you log on to your computer. If you do not want to reconnect to the mapped drive, you can deselect this option.

If you do not know the server name and share name of the resource, you can use the Browse button in the Map Network Drive dialog box to locate it. This will show an incomplete list of resources available to you; for security reasons, some shares are hidden.

You can disconnect from a network drive by selecting the Tools menu, selecting the Disconnect Network Drive command, selecting the drive you want to disconnect, and then selecting OK. You can then map the drive letter to another drive, if desired.

Procedures

1. Open My Computer.

2. Select the Tools menu.

3. Select the Map Network Drive command.

4. Select the Drive list.

5. Select the desired letter.

6. Type the server name and share name in the Folder box.

7. Deselect the Reconnect at logon option, if desired.

8. Continue to select the desired options.

9. Select Finish.

Sharing Files/Folders

Procedure

1) Right Click the desire file or folder (object)

2) Select Sharing and Security… from the drop down menu

3) Click the Option Share this Folder

4) Under Share Name text box, type in the desire name for the object e.g. ISO

5) Click on apply then ok.

Note: The above procedure has little or no security in place. A secure way of carrying this out will be given in the training.

Chapter Four

4.0 Introduction:

This chapter introduces the concept of viruses to trainee, to enable them know about the menace of it and work hard to eliminate it. It covers definition, types, prevention tips and recovery from its attacks.

4.1 Viruses

A computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer without permission or knowledge of the user. However, the term "virus" is commonly used, albeit erroneously, to refer to many different types of malware programs. The original virus may modify the copies, or the copies may modify themselves, as occurs in a metamorphic virus. A virus can only spread from one computer to another when its host is taken to the uninfected computer, for instance by a user sending it over a network or the Internet, or by carrying it on a removable medium such as a floppy disk, CD, or USB drive. Meanwhile viruses can spread to other computers by infecting files on a network file system or a file system that is accessed by another computer. Viruses are sometimes confused with computer worms and Trojan horses. A worm can spread itself to other computers without needing to be transferred as part of a host, and a Trojan horse is a file that appears harmless. Both worms and Trojans will cause harm to computers when executed.

Most personal computers are now connected to the Internet and to local area networks, facilitating the spread of malicious code. Today's viruses may also take advantage of network services such as the World Wide Web, e-mail, Instant Messaging and file sharing systems to spread, blurring the line between viruses and worms. Furthermore, some sources use an alternative terminology in which a virus is any form of self-replicating malware.

Some viruses are programmed to damage the computer by damaging programs, deleting files, or reformatting the hard disk. Others are not designed to do any damage, but simply replicate themselves and perhaps make their presence known by presenting text, video, or audio messages. Even these benign viruses can create problems for the computer user. They typically take up computer memory used by legitimate programs. As a result, they often cause erratic behavior and can result in system crashes. In addition, many viruses are bug-ridden, and these bugs may lead to system crashes and data loss.

Infection strategies

In order to replicate itself, a virus must be permitted to execute code and write to memory. For this reason, many viruses attach themselves to executable files that may be part of legitimate programs. If a user tries to start an infected program, the virus' code may be executed first. Viruses can be divided into two types, on the basis of their behavior when they are executed. Nonresident viruses immediately search for other hosts that can be infected, infect these targets, and finally transfer control to the application program they infected. Resident viruses do not search for hosts when they are started. Instead, a resident virus loads itself into memory on execution and transfers control to the host program. The virus stays active in the background and infects new hosts when those files are accessed by other programs or the operating system itself.

Nonresident viruses

Nonresident viruses can be thought of as consisting of a finder module and a replication module. The finder module is responsible for finding new files to infect. For each new executable file the finder module encounters, it calls the replication module to infect that file.

Resident viruses

Resident viruses contain a replication module that is similar to the one that is employed by nonresident viruses. However, this module is not called by a finder module. Instead, the virus loads the replication module into memory when it is executed and ensures that this module is executed each time the operating system is called to perform a certain operation. For example, the replication module can be called each time the operating system executes a file. In this case, the virus infects every suitable program that is executed on the computer.

Resident viruses are sometimes subdivided into a category of fast infectors and a category of slow infectors. Fast infectors are designed to infect as many files as possible. For instance, a fast infector can infect every potential host file that is accessed. This poses a special problem to anti-virus software, since a virus scanner will access every potential host file on a computer when it performs a system-wide scan. If the virus scanner fails to notice that such a virus is present in memory, the virus can "piggy-back" on the virus scanner and in this way infect all files that are scanned. Fast infectors rely on their fast infection rate to spread. The disadvantage of this method is that infecting many files may make detection more likely, because the virus may slow down a computer or perform many suspicious actions that can be noticed by anti-virus software. Slow infectors, on the other hand, are designed to infect hosts infrequently. For instance, some slow infectors only infect files when they are copied. Slow infectors are designed to avoid detection by limiting their actions: they are less likely to slow down a computer noticeably, and will at most infrequently trigger anti-virus software that detects suspicious behavior by programs. The slow infector approach does not seem very successful, however.

4.2 Virus Prevention Tips

Stay aware of current virus news by checking sites like Symantec, McAfee's AVERT Alerts.

Keep your anti-virus software up-to-date, and use it. ETERNIT LIMITED, SAPELE distributes the Symantec Endpoint Anti virus to all client PCs to get them protected.

Make sure that your anti-virus software checks all files every time they're opened.

Don't open e-mail attachments that you did not expect and don't know exactly what they are.

When downloading files from the Internet, download only from reputable sites and scan the files before executing them.

Be careful exchanging disks and files between computers. If you are taking a file to a computer lab for printing, write-protect the floppy disk or Flash.

If you use Microsoft Outlook (not Express) for e-mail, make sure that the "automatic preview" feature is disabled. You can find this option under the "View" menu.

Make sure that Microsoft Office macro virus protection is enabled.

Consider de-installing Windows Scripting Host.

4.3 Anti-virus software and other preventive measures

Many users install anti-virus software that can detect and eliminate known viruses after the computer downloads or runs the executable. There are two common methods that an anti-virus software application uses to detect viruses. The first, and by far the most common method of virus detection is using a list of virus signature definitions. This works by examining the content of the computer's memory (its RAM, and boot sectors) and the files stored on fixed or removable drives (hard drives, floppy drives), and comparing those files against a database of known virus "signatures". The disadvantage of this detection method is that users are only protected from viruses that pre-date their last virus definition update. The second method is to use a heuristic algorithm to find viruses based on common behaviors. This method has the ability to detect viruses that anti-virus security firms have yet to create a signature for.

Some anti-virus programs are able to scan opened files in addition to sent and received e-mails 'on the fly' in a similar manner. This practice is known as "on-access scanning." Anti-virus software does not change the underlying capability of host software to transmit viruses. Users must update their software regularly to patch security holes. Anti-virus software also needs to be regularly updated in order to prevent the latest threats.

One may also prevent the damage done by viruses by making regular backups of data (and the Operating Systems) on different media, that are either kept unconnected to the system (most of the time), read-only or not accessible for other reasons, such as using different file systems. This way, if data is lost through a virus, one can start again using the backup (which should preferably be recent). If a backup session on optical media like CD and DVD is closed, it becomes read-only and can no longer be affected by a virus. Likewise, an Operating System on a bootable can be used to start the computer if the installed Operating Systems become unusable. Another method is to use different Operating Systems on different file systems. A virus is not likely to affect both. Data backups can also be put on different file systems. For example, Linux requires specific software to write to NTFS partitions, so if one does not install such software and uses a separate installation of MS Windows to make the backups on an NTFS partition, the backup should remain safe from any Linux viruses. Likewise, MS Windows can not read file systems like ext3, so if one normally uses MS Windows, the backups can be made on an ext3 partition using a Linux installation.

Recovery methods

Once a computer has been compromised by a virus, it is usually unsafe to continue using the same computer without completely reinstalling the operating system. However, there are a number of recovery options that exist after a computer has a virus. These actions depend on severity of the type of Virus.

Virus removal

One possibility on Windows XP and Windows Vista is a tool known as System Restore, which restores the registry and critical system files to a previous checkpoint. Often a virus will cause a system to hang, and a subsequent hard reboot will render a system restore point from the same day corrupt. Restore points from previous days should work provided the virus is not designed to corrupt the restore files. Some viruses, however, disable system restore and other important tools such as Task Manager and Command Prompt. An example of a virus that does this is CiaDoor.

Administrators have the option to disable such tools from limited users for various reasons. The virus modifies the registry to do the same, except, when the Administrator is controlling the computer, it blocks all users from accessing the tools. When an infected tool activates it gives the message "Task Manager has been disabled by your administrator.", even if the user trying to open the program is the administrator.

Users running a Microsoft operating system can go to Microsoft's website to run a free scan, if they have their 20-digit registration number.

Operating system reinstallation

Reinstalling the operating system is another approach to virus removal. It involves simply reformatting the OS partition and installing the OS from its original media, or imaging the partition with a clean backup image (taken with Ghost or Acronis for example).

This method has the benefits of being simple to do, can be faster than running multiple anti-virus scans, and is guaranteed to remove any malware. Downsides include having to reinstall all other software as well as the operating system. User data can be backed up by booting off of a LiveCD or putting the hard drive into another computer and booting from the other computer's operating system.

Conclusion and Recommendation:

As the whole world is going computerized and I.T being made a pre-requisite for employment and a strong working tool, we would recommend you take various I.T training from time to time to meet with current trend. Make the IT Department your friend; come up with suggestions, ask us questions and always read to acquire knowledge.

References

1) Computer Engineering- A Manual, E. Uzochukwu and H.U Nwosu, Springfield publishers, 2003

2) Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2007

3) http//www.goldenink.com/computersandnetworks2.shtml

4) http://www.softlord.com/comp/

5) http://wikipedia.com

WIDNETWORK SOLUTIONS

2009-08-25T02:32:00.000-07:00

Widnetwork Solution is a company that provide ICT solutions and Collaboration of Auto-mobile Sales Like Motor-Cycles.

ACTIVE DIRECTORY AND EXCHAGE DOCUMENTATION

2009-08-03T10:02:00.000-07:00

Upgrade to Windows 2008 Domain Controllers (ADPREP)
Preparing to Run ADPREP /forestprep
ADPREP /forestprep makes modifications to the schema. In order to successfully run it you should:
Have a good system state backup for every domain controller in your forest, or at the very least a good system state backup for one domain controller for each domain in the forest.
Be logged on as a user that belongs to the Domain Admin, Schema Admin and Enterprise Admin groups in the forest root domain.
Ensure that you are running Windows 2000 SP4 or later on all domain controllers in the forest.
You must run ADPREP /forestprep on your schema master.
If you are running Exchange 2000 in your environment refer to KB article 325379 How to upgrade Windows 2000 domain controllers to Windows Server 2003.
Ensure replication is working throughout the entire forest, including that all domain controllers are up and running and that the schema master has been up long enough for a complete replication cycle to happen for the Schema partition.
So let’s go through all these preparatory steps in detail
First you should perform a system state backup on all of your domain controllers using either Windows Backup (NTBackup) or a third-party backup tool. This step is necessary if you find that your schema is incompatible and you need to roll back to a previous state.
Next, check to see if your account has the appropriate group memberships. Open Active Directory Users and Computers, right-click the account you are using to do the upgrade and choose Properties. Select the Member Of tab. If you do not see Domain Admins, Enterprise Admins and Schema Admins, add the ones you are missing. Log off and back on, then run whoami /groups in a command prompt to verify the groups are in your security token.
ADPREP /forestprep will check to see if you are running at least Windows 2000 SP4. If you have Windows 2000 domain controllers in your environment you should upgrade them all to SP4. You can download SP4 from here - Windows 2000 Service Pack 4 for IT professionals.
Next, check to see if you are logged on to your schema master. There are two ways to accomplish this. One is to run regsvr32 schmmgmt.dll so you can load the Active Directory Schema snap-in. Open a new MMC and add Active Directory Schema. Right-click on the words Active Directory Schema and choose Operations Master. Another alternative is to run netdom query fsmo from a command prompt. Netdom is part of the Windows Server 2003 Support Tools.
There are known issues with upgrading a Windows 2000 domain with Exchange 2000 running in the environment. There are different scenarios with different steps in KB article 325379 to address problems that have been encountered in the upgrade process. You will be performing one of the scenarios regardless. It is just a matter of which scenario you will have to perform.
The final verification is to check and make sure replication is working. To do this install the Windows Server 2003 Support Tools if you do not have them already installed. Run repadmin /showreps from a command prompt. You are looking for Last attempt @ date\time was successful. Any errors should be addressed before attempting to run ADPREP /forestprep. NOTE: ADPREP /forestprep will only check to see if replication is working on your schema master. It will not check the replication status of all DCs in your environment. Repadmin /showreps will only check the DC that you focus it on. In order to check the entire environment you will want to run repadmin /replsum. This command will give you the status of your entire environment. You will want to fix any errors you have with replication prior to running ADPREP /forestprep.
Running ADPREP /forestprep
Now you are ready to prepare your forest. This procedure takes a while depending on the speed of your computer so do not interrupt it. Insert your Windows Server 2008 DVD into the DVD drive on the schema master.
Open a command prompt.
Change your drive letter to the DVD drive. If you do not have a DVD drive on your schema master you can copy the Sources\Adprep folder to your local drive and run it from the copy.
Change into the Sources\Adprep directory.
Run ADPREP /forestprep.
You will get a warning that you need to be running Windows 2000 SP4 or later.
Type C and press Enter.
You will see a series of updates from LDF files.
If all goes well, you will see ADPREP successfully updated the forest-wide information.
Preparing to Run ADPREP /domainprep
After a successful completion of ADPREP /forestprep, you will be ready to run ADPREP /domainprep. ADPREP /domainprep must be run against each domain that you wish to upgrade.
Prerequisites
In order to run ADPREP /domainprep you should:
Have successfully completed ADPREP /forestprep.
Be a domain admin for the domain you are running it on.
Be at Windows 2000 Native Mode Domain Functional level.
Have access to the Infrastructure Master.
Wait for the schema changes to replicate throughout the environment, or at least the Infrastructure Master must have the schema updates replicated to it.
Note: Upgrading from Windows 2000 is not supported. For more information see Guide for Upgrading to Windows 2008.
Running ADPREP /Domainprep
Insert the Windows Server 2008 DVD. Open a command prompt.
Change your drive letter to the DVD drive.
Change your directory to Sources\Adprep.
Run ADPREP /domainprep.

For a better understanding of what will occur running the ADPREP /Domainprep command, I have referenced the KB article Enhancements to ADPREP.exe in Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1(Q324392). The More Information section describes the functionality post-Windows 2003 SP1, including the Windows 2008 ADPREP.
Preparing to Run ADPREP /domainprep /gpprep
ADPREP /domainPrep /gpprep only adds the inheritable access control entries on Group Policy objects in the Sysvol share. If you run it prior to running adprep /domainprep it will run both functions, first the domain prep and then the GP prep.
Prerequisites
In order to run ADPREP /domainprep /gpprep you should:
Have completed the prerequisites for ADPREP /domainprep.
Have Sysvol\Sysvol\Policies\{Default Domain and Default Domain Controller GPO guids} in place. a. In Windows Explorer Navigate to your Sysvol\Sysvol\Domain\Policies folder b. Verify the following GUIDs are inplace {31B2F340-016D-11D2-945F-00C04FB984F9} {6AC1786C-016F-11D2-945F-00C04FB984F9}
Note Upgrading from Windows 2000 is not supported. For more information see Guide for Upgrading to Windows 2008.
Running ADPREP /domainprep /gpprep
Insert the Windows Server 2008 DVD.
Open a command prompt.
Change your drive letter to the DVD drive.
Change your directory to Sources\Adprep.
Run ADPREP /domainprep /gpprep.

ADPREP /domainprep /gpprep without running adprep /domainprep first.

ADPREP /domainprep /gpprep after running adprep /domainprep
Preparing to Run ADPREP /rodcprep
RODC’s (Read-Only Domain Controllers) are a cool new feature added in Windows Server 2008. The benefits of a RODC in certain domain configurations are well worth the effort of learning and implementing them. For more information on the benefits, see RODC Features on TechNet. If you intend to introduce them into your environment you will have to run ADPREP /rodcprep. This command prepares partitions in Active Directory so RODC’s can be used by adding security to the ForestDNS, DomainDNS, and Domain partitions.
Prerequisites
In order to run ADPREP /domainprep /rodcprep you should:
Be a Domain Admin and Enterprise Admin.
Be able to contact all Infrastructure Master role holders in the forest.
Note ADPREP /rodcprep will let you run without first running ADPREP /forestprep and ADPREP /domainprep, however it is not recommended.
Running ADPREP /rodcprep
Insert the Windows Server 2008 DVD.
Open a command prompt.
Change your drive letter to the DVD drive.
Change your directory to Sources\Adprep.
Run ADPREP /domainprep /rodcprep.
That concludes this post on running ADPREP. Running through the steps in order should eliminate many of the problems you might otherwise encounter

DOCUMENTATION ON EXCHANGE AND ACTIVE DIRECTORY

Before installing Microsoft Exchange 2003 Server, you must prepare your Windows 2003 forest. The Microsoft Active Directory Schema must be extended to save Exchange 2003 attributes and claases and permissions must be granted to the user or group who will be installing the first Exchange 2003 server in the forest. In every domain that will host either an Exchange 2003 server or mail-enabled users, two security groups must be created.
These security groups are used to perform administrative functions when the Exchange team members are different from the Windows team member – which is normal in larger enterprises – but later.
The Exchange 2003 Server CD contains two Setup Switches to accomplish these tasks:
ForestPrep and
DomainPrep.
When you use the /ForestPrep option, the Exchange Setup program extends the Active Directory schema to add Exchange-specific classes and attributes.
ForestPrep also creates the container object for the Exchange 2003 organization in the domain naming context of Active Directory, and it assigns, to the account that you specify, Exchange Full Administrative permissions to the organization object.
This account now has the authority to install and manage Exchange 2003 throughout the forest, along with the authority to assign other administrators Exchange Full Administrative permissions after the first Exchange server is installed.Requirements
Forest wide permissions to manage Active Directory
Member of the Enterprise Administrators and Schema Administrators groups
Member of the local Administrators group
Why Do You Need ForestPrep and DomainPrep?
Larger organizations do not want their messaging administrator team to have high-level domain or enterprise rights because these tasks will be done by experienced Windows Administrators
It is common for Exchange administrators to be in a separate team from the Windows / Active Directory Administration team.
For organizations that don’t have a structure like this stated, ForestPrep and DomainPrep separates the Exchange 2003 setup tasks that require high-level network permissions from those that do not.
For example, Windows 2003 administrators with EnterpriseAdmin and SchemaAdmin permissions run ForestPrep, during which they designate an account as the Exchange 2003 administrator. This Exchange administrator will have enough rights (after both utilities are run) to perform the actual Exchange 2003 installation.
Note:If the user who installs Exchange is a member of the EnterpriseAdmin and SchemaAdmin groups, Forestprep and Domainprep will be automatically executed.
Most deployment scenarios require you to run ForestPrep for successful Exchange 2003 installation. As a general formula keep in mind that when the administrator doesn’t have EnterpriseAdmin and SchemaAdmin permissions, you must run ForestPrep.
When you install Exchange 2003 in a child domain, you must first run ForestPrep in the parent domain. If you don’t do this, Setup will prompt you to do so when you attempt to install in the child domain.
ForestPrep in detail
ForestPrep performs all Exchange 2003 setup tasks that require EnterpriseAdmin and SchemaAdmin permissions, as it makes changes in the configuration naming container in Active Directory. ForestPrep extends your Active Directory schema to include Exchange-specific information. ForestPrep also creates objects in Active Directory and gives permissions on those objects to the account designated as the Exchange 2003 administrator. This administrator will have enough permission to install the first Exchange 2003 server in your organization.
ForestPrep also creates the Exchange organization name and object in Active Directory. New in Exchange 2003 Forestprep is the creation of a placeholder Organization object. Setup will create a “temporary” organization with a hard-coded name. (That name is a GUID: “{335A1087-5131-4D45-BE3E-3C6C7F76F5EC}”.) Setup can delegate the first Exchange administrator on this object; create the Exchange configuration underneath it, and so on. Later, when setup is run to install the first server in the organization – by someone who is an Exchange administrator – setup can rename the existing placeholder object, either to a user-specified name or to match the name of an Exchange 5.5 organization. The final naming is decided by the answer to the “Installation Type” screen.
You need to run ForestPrep only once per Windows 2003 forest.
Be sure to type the command exactly as in Figure1 because a wrong typed command will start a normal Exchange setup without the /Forestprep option.
Figure 1: SETUP /FORESTPREP
ImportantAfter ForestPrep and DomainPrep are run, the designated Exchange administrator has only enough permission to install Exchange. By default, this account is not able to create accounts or give users mailboxes unless this account is also a member of the Account Operators group.
You can grant administrators permissions to create and administer Windows accounts within your Exchange organization by making them Account Operators or by using the following two methods. Both methods use the Active Directory Users and Computers snap-in. The first is to run the Windows 2003 Delegation of Control Wizard and grant your Exchange administrator control of the Users container. The second is to create a new group specifically for Exchange users within the Users container and grant the Exchange administrator full control of that new group.
You need to gather the following information before running this utility. ForestPrep prompts for different information depending on whether you are installing a new Exchange 2003 organization or joining an existing Exchange 5.5 organization.
New Installation
For a new installation of Exchange 2003 Server, the network administrator needs to have the following information before running ForestPrep:
The name of the Exchange 2003 organization
The account of the person or group who will install the first Exchange 2003 server in your organization
Note:Once Exchange is installed, this person or group is able to create other Exchange administrators by using the Exchange Administration Delegation Wizard.
Graphical Setup mode of Forestprep
Figure 2: Graphical Forestprep option
When Is It Unnecessary to Run ForestPrep?
You should run ForestPrep before installing your first Exchange 2003 server—regardless of your organization’s topology. However, there are some scenarios (such as in a small business) in which ForestPrep might not be required.
ForestPrep and DomainPrep both run automatically during Setup, but only if the Exchange administrator account is a member of the SchemaAdmin and EnterpriseAdmin groups and if the first Exchange 2003 server installation takes place in the same domain as the Schema Master.
When this is the case, you do not need to manually execute either utility. By default, the account with which you have logged on becomes the designated Exchange 2003 administrator.
Allow Time for Replication
After you run ForestPrep, be sure to allow enough time for the schema extensions to replicate throughout all the domains and sub-domains in your organization. Depending on the geography of your organization and the speed of your network connections between Windows 2003 sites or domains, this could take some time. You should run DomainPrep only after you’re sure that the Exchange-specific information has been replicated across your organization.
DomainPrep in detail
The DomainPrep utility performs the Exchange setup tasks that require DomainAdmin permissions; it should be run by a member of the DomainAdmin group. You need to run DomainPrep once in each domain that contains an Exchange 2003 server and in any domain that hosts Exchange users. These are domains without Exchange servers but with mail enabled users. Domainprep is necessary for the recipient update service (RUS) and to create the groups and permissions necessary for Exchange servers to read and modify user attributes.
DomainPrep creates two new domain groups: Exchange Domain Servers (a Windows 2003 global security group) and Exchange Enterprise Servers (a Windows 2003 domain local security group).
DomainPrep also creates the Public Folder proxy container in Active Directory. While ForestPrep works in the forest-wide configuration naming container, the Public Folder object (a Microsoft Exchange System Object) exists outside this container (this is the reason why you can’t see public folders with ADSIEDIT, LDP or other LDAP tools). DomainPrep creates this object on a per-domain basis, under the domain container.
Exchange Domain Servers Group
The Exchange Domain Servers global security group contains the computer accounts of all Exchange servers in the domain. Though it is created by DomainPrep, the Exchange Domain Servers group is not populated until the actual installation of Exchange 2003.
The Exchange Domain Servers group is necessary for the Recipient Update Service, which is needed in every domain of your Exchange organization. This includes user domains, which do not contain Exchange servers but do have mail-enabled users. Recipient Update Service is used by Exchange to generate and update default and customized address lists and to process changes made to recipient policies.
Exchange Enterprise Servers Group
The Exchange Enterprise Servers group (a domain local group type) contains every Exchange Domain Servers group (a domain local group type) in your organization. In other words, every domain with an Exchange server, along with every domain in which DomainPrep has been run and that has an active Recipient Update Service, belongs to the Exchange Enterprise Servers group.
This group is populated immediately when DomainPrep adds the Exchange Domain Servers group from the current domain to it. Recipient Update Service adds the Exchange Domain Servers groups from all other domains that have an active Recipient Update Service.
You must meet the following requirements before you run DomainPrep:
The account that runs DomainPrep must belong to the domain’s DomainAdmin group.
ForestPrep must have already been run in your Windows 2003 forest.
The schema extensions made by ForestPrep to Active Directory must have already replicated throughout your organization.
When is it unnecessary to Run DomainPrep?
DomainPrep should be executed before installing the first Exchange 2003 server. DomainPrep is not necessary when:
The account that is installing the first Exchange 2003 server in the domain is an Exchange Full Administrator and a member of the DomainAdmins group
The person who is installing Exchange has EnterpriseAdmin permissions.
In both scenarios, DomainPrep runs automatically as a hidden process during the Exchange 2003 setup.
When must you Run DomainPrep?
For DomainPrep to work correctly, you must run it:
After running ForestPrep, and after all ForestPrep changes are replicated throughout the forest.
Before the through Forestprep designated Exchange 2003 administrator can install the first Exchange 2003 server in the domain.
Whenever you must create a Recipient Update Service (RUS) for a domain with mail-enabled users.
It is also necessary to run Domainprep in an empty Forest Root Domain because RUS must use it.
Active Directory Connector (ADC)
ADC, first introduced in Exchange 2003, updates the Active Directory Schema during installation, regardless if the Active Directory was updated through the Exchange 2003 Forestprep and Domainprep process.
The Exchange 2003 version of ADC uses the same schema extensions as Exchange 2003. So if you install ADC, the setup process updates the Active Directory Schema so you don’t need to update the Schema with Exchange 2003 Forestprep and vica verse.
How to see if FORESTPREP and DOMAINPREP were successful
In Exchange 2000 you have to use tools like ADSIEDIT to see if FORESTPREP and DOMAINPREP were successfully.
With Exchange 2003 you can use the ORGPREPCHECK switch from the EXDEPLOY tools.
ORGPREPCHECK
Run ORGPREPCHECK at a command prompt
CD-ROM_Drive_Letter:\support\exdeploy\exdeploy.exe /gc:global catalog server name /t:orgprepcheck
View the EXDEPLOY.LOG file in C:\EXDEPLOY LOGS to see if the setup /forestprep command and the setup /domainprep command have completed successfully.
Figure 3: EXDEPLOY /ORGPREPCHK Switch
ORGPREPCHECK verifies the Exchange extensions to the Active Directory Schema, the existence and membership of the Exchange Domain Servers group and Exchange Enterprise Servers Group and checks that a global catalog Server is available in a domain in which DOMAINPREP has been run. The result is displayed in the EXDEPLOY.LOG file.
Figure 4: EXDEPLOY.LOG file
Conclusion
As you have seen in this article, FORESTPREP and DOMAINPREP are not so mystical when you understand the basics. FORESTPREP and DOMAINPREP are necessary components to update the Active Directory Schema to support Exchange 2000 / 2003.
Please keep in mind that Forestprep updates the Windows 2003 Active Directory Schema and ALL this information must be replicated to all Domain Controllers in the Forest.
Related Links
How to verify successful Exchange 2003 Forestprephttp://hellomate.typepad.com/exchange/2003/10/forestprep_and_.html
Manual Schema Changes Are Lost When You Apply Exchange Server 2003 Schema over Exchange 2000 Server Schemahttp://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=kb;en-us;818583
How the Exchange 2003 Active Directory Connector Setup Process Updates the Schemahttp://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=kb;en-us;822589
Permissions that you must have to install Active Directory Connector in Exchange Server 2003http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=kb;en-us;818473
Security Setting Changes and Updates That Are Introduced in Exchange Server 2003http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=kb;en-us;818473
Security Setting Changes and Updates That Are Introduced in Exchange Server 2003http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=kb;en-us;824111
Exchange 2003 Setup Program Does Not Display the Installation Type Screen After You Run the /Forestprep Switchhttp://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=kb;en-us;829360
Running Exchange 2000 FORESTPREP after You Run Exchange 2003 FORESTPREP Allows You to Install Exchange 2000 but Creates a GUID for the Organization Namehttp://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=kb;en-us;820112

HAPPY NEW YEAR.

2009-01-08T01:57:00.000-08:00

THIS IS ANOTHER NEW YEAR

All about Linux swap space

2008-12-16T09:30:00.000-08:00

When your computer needs to run programs that are bigger than your available physical memory, most modern operating systems use a technique called swapping, in which chunks of memory are temporarily stored on the hard disk while other data is moved into physical memory space. Here are some techniques that may help you better manage swapping on Linux systems and get the best performance from the Linux swapping subsystem.

Linux divides its physical RAM (random access memory) into chucks of memory called pages. Swapping is the process whereby a page of memory is copied to the preconfigured space on the hard disk, called swap space, to free up that page of memory. The combined sizes of the physical memory and the swap space is the amount of virtual memory available.

Swapping is necessary for two important reasons. First, when the system requires more memory than is physically available, the kernel swaps out less used pages and gives memory to the current application (process) that needs the memory immediately. Second, a significant number of the pages used by an application during its startup phase may only be used for initialization and then never used again. The system can swap out those pages and free the memory for other applications or even for the disk cache.

However, swapping does have a downside. Compared to memory, disks are very slow. Memory speeds can be measured in nanoseconds, while disks are measured in milliseconds, so accessing the disk can be tens of thousands times slower than accessing physical memory. The more swapping that occurs, the slower your system will be. Sometimes excessive swapping or thrashing occurs where a page is swapped out and then very soon swapped in and then swapped out again and so on. In such situations the system is struggling to find free memory and keep applications running at the same time. In this case only adding more RAM will help.

Linux has two forms of swap space: the swap partition and the swap file. The swap partition is an independent section of the hard disk used solely for swapping; no other files can reside there. The swap file is a special file in the filesystem that resides amongst your system and data files.

To see what swap space you have, use the command swapon -s. The output will look something like this:

Filename        Type            Size    Used    Priority
/dev/sda5       partition       859436  0       -1

Each line lists a separate swap space being used by the system. Here, the 'Type' field indicates that this swap space is a partition rather than a file, and from 'Filename' we see that it is on the disk sda5. The 'Size' is listed in kilobytes, and the 'Used' field tells us how many kilobytes of swap space has been used (in this case none). 'Priority' tells Linux which swap space to use first. One great thing about the Linux swapping subsystem is that if you mount two (or more) swap spaces (preferably on two different devices) with the same priority, Linux will interleave its swapping activity between them, which can greatly increase swapping performance.

To add an extra swap partition to your system, you first need to prepare it. Step one is to ensure that the partition is marked as a swap partition and step two is to make the swap filesystem. To check that the partition is marked for swap, run as root:

fdisk -l /dev/hdb

Replace /dev/hdb with the device of the hard disk on your system with the swap partition on it. You should see output that looks like this:

 Device Boot    Start   End     Blocks  Id      System
/dev/hdb1       2328    2434    859446  82      Linux swap / Solaris

If the partition isn't marked as swap you will need to alter it by running fdisk and using the 't' menu option. Be careful when working with partitions -- you don't want to delete important partitions by mistake or change the id of your system partition to swap by mistake. All data on a swap partition will be lost, so double-check every change you make. Also note that Solaris uses the same ID as Linux swap space for its partitions, so be careful not to kill your Solaris partitions by mistake.

Once a partition is marked as swap, you need to prepare it using the mkswap (make swap) command as root:

mkswap /dev/hdb1

If you see no errors, your swap space is ready to use. To activate it immediately, type:

swapon /dev/hdb1

You can verify that it is being used by running swapon -s. To mount the swap space automatically at boot time, you must add an entry to the /etc/fstab file, which contains a list of filesystems and swap spaces that need to be mounted at boot up. The format of each line is:

Since swap space is a special type of filesystem, many of these parameters aren't applicable. For swap space, add:

/dev/hdb1       none    swap    sw      0       0

where /dev/hdb1 is the swap partition. It doesn't have a specific mount point, hence none. It is of type swap with options of sw, and the last two parameters aren't used so they are entered as 0.

To check that your swap space is being automatically mounted without having to reboot, you can run the swapoff -a command (which turns off all swap spaces) and then swapon -a (which mounts all swap spaces listed in the /etc/fstab file) and then check it with swapon -s.

Swap file

As well as the swap partition, Linux also supports a swap file that you can create, prepare, and mount in a fashion similar to that of a swap partition. The advantage of swap files is that you don't need to find an empty partition or repartition a disk to add additional swap space.

To create a swap file, use the dd command to create an empty file. To create a 1GB file, type:

dd if=/dev/zero of=/swapfile bs=1024 count=1048576

/swapfile is the name of the swap file, and the count of 1048576 is the size in kilobytes (i.e. 1GB).

Prepare the swap file using mkswap just as you would a partition, but this time use the name of the swap file:

mkswap /swapfile

And similarly, mount it using the swapon command: swapon /swapfile.

The /etc/fstab entry for a swap file would look like this:

/swapfile       none    swap    sw      0       0

How big should my swap space be?

It is possible to run a Linux system without a swap space, and the system will run well if you have a large amount of memory -- but if you run out of physical memory then the system will crash, as it has nothing else it can do, so it is advisable to have a swap space, especially since disk space is relatively cheap.

The key question is how much? Older versions of Unix-type operating systems (such as Sun OS and Ultrix) demanded a swap space of two to three times that of physical memory. Modern implementations (such as Linux) don't require that much, but they can use it if you configure it. A rule of thumb is as follows: 1) for a desktop system, use a swap space of double system memory, as it will allow you to run a large number of applications (many of which may will be idle and easily swapped), making more RAM available for the active applications; 2) for a server, have a smaller amount of swap available (say half of physical memory) so that you have some flexibility for swapping when needed, but monitor the amount of swap space used and upgrade your RAM if necessary; 3) for older desktop machines (with say only 128MB), use as much swap space as you can spare, even up to 1GB.

The Linux 2.6 kernel added a new kernel parameter called swappiness to let administrators tweak the way Linux swaps. It is a number from 0 to 100. In essence, higher values lead to more pages being swapped, and lower values lead to more applications being kept in memory, even if they are idle. Kernel maintainer Andrew Morton has said that he runs his desktop machines with a swappiness of 100, stating that "My point is that decreasing the tendency of the kernel to swap stuff out is wrong. You really don't want hundreds of megabytes of BloatyApp's untouched memory floating about in the machine. Get it out on the disk, use the memory for something useful."

One downside to Morton's idea is that if memory is swapped out too quickly then application response time drops, because when the application's window is clicked the system has to swap the application back into memory, which will make it feel slow.

The default value for swappiness is 60. You can alter it temporarily (until you next reboot) by typing as root:

echo 50 > /proc/sys/vm/swappiness

If you want to alter it permanently then you need to change the vm.swappiness parameter in the /etc/sysctl.conf file.

Conclusion

Managing swap space is an essential aspect of system administration. With good planning and proper use swapping can provide many benefits. Don't be afraid to experiment, and always monitor your system to ensure you are getting the results you need.

Swap space

2008-12-16T09:29:00.000-08:00

Swap Memory is a space in the Hard Disk of your computer

that Operating Systems (Linux in our case) will use to put the info that is actually on the RAM to free it for another application.

This should be done when the system needs memory for a new process and there is none, so we can see that if our system has plenty of RAM it will maybe need no SWAP memory.

How much Swap Memory do I need?

As a rule of thumb if you have 512 MB RAM put 1 GByte Swap, but this stops being true when the limit at least in x386 PCs is achieved (2 GB or swap is the maximum I could ever allocate to a System).

How do I create Swap.

Usually when you install Linux you reserve a partition to be used as swap memory, and the rest of the disk for your files, but what happens if I need more swap memory?. How to create more swap memory?

If you disk is full you can try to shrink the partitions to make room for another swap partition but an easier way is to make a swap file, so now the question is.

How to create a swap file?

dd if=/dev/zero of=/swapfile bs=1024 count=100000
This will create file (swapfile) of size 100 MB (round)
mkswap /swapfile
add this file to your swap pool
swapon /swapfile

Incresing a swap space on Linux OS

2008-12-16T09:25:00.000-08:00

This is simple method for Increase your available swap space with a swap file

All of your devices function, and everything is configured just the way you like it. At least you think so, until you start running out of memory when you have OpenOffice.org and lots of browser tabs open simultaneously. You realize you should have specified a larger swap partition during your install. this smiple method of installing gain .swap partition.

There’s more than one way to maintain your Linux system. Instead of creating a swap file, you could instead resize and or reshuffle your partitions with parted or its graphical front end QtParted.

To start , see how much swap space you already have. At a command line by typing ,
swapon -s (you might need to prepend /sbin/ if you’re not root)
the command should produce a message :

Filename Type Size Used Priority
/dev/hda2 partition 128044 92472 -1

The numbers under “Size” and “Used” are in kilobytes.

Let’s figure out where to put it. Running df -m from a command line should produce output something like this:

Filesystem 1M-blocks Used Available Use% Mounted on
/dev/hda1 11443 6191 5252 55% /

The -m switch we used provided us with output in megabytes. Under the “Available” column we have approximately 5GB of free space on our root partition. Let’s steal 512MB of that for our auxiliary swap file. You might want more or less, depending on your memory needs, how much swap space you already have available, and how much free disk space you have. The general rule of thumb for swap size is that your total available swap space should be around double your RAM size. If you have additional partitions, and one of those is a better candidate than the / partition, feel free to use it instead.

Please make Back up your important data before proceeding. If you carefully follow the steps below you should be fine,

In order to create our supplementary swap file, we’re going to use the dd (data dump) command. You’ll need to become root to perform the next few steps. su - and enter your root password. When you’re ready,

dd if=/dev/zero of=/extraswap bs=1M count=512

replacing 512 with the number of megabytes you want in your auxiliary swap file. if= and of= are short for infile and outfile. The /dev/zero device file will give us zeroes to be written to the output file. If you want this file on a different partition, say your /var partition, you would replace /extraswap with /var/extraswap.

Now we have a file the size we want on disk, and we can prepare it for use as a swap partition. We’ll use the mkswap command to make our file swap-consumable for the Linux kernel. Again as root,
#mkswap /extraswap

To turn on our swap file, we run swapon /extraswap. Now when we run swapon -s we should see our existing swap partition and our new swapfile. Also, the free command should show an increase in total swap space.

But we’re still not done yet. If we reboot our machine now, our new swapfile won’t be active, and we’ll have to run swapon /extraswap again. to make things more permanent, you need to edit our /etc/fstab file.

make a copy of the file. Something like this should do the trick:

cp /etc/fstab /etc/fstab.mybackup

open /etc/fstab in your favorite text editor and find a line about your swapfile that looks something like this:

/dev/hda2 none swap sw 0 0

You’ll need another line like that underneath it pointing to your new swap file. Replace the first column with the location of your new swap file. For our example, the new line should look like this:

/extraswap none swap sw 0 0

Save the file. Mistaken changes to /etc/fstab could render your system unbootable, so just to make sure you didn’t accidently change anything else in /etc/fstab, run diff /etc/fstab.mybackup /etc/fstab to check for differences. That should output only the single line you added, with a “>” sign in front of it. If you see anything else in diff’s output, edit /etc/fstab again, fix it, and run the above diff command again.

In practical terms, there’s a minimal performance hit from this extra step. By the time you’ve run out of RAM and are beginning to swap, you’re already suffering a massive performance hit. After your original swap partition is full and you’re spilling into your auxiliary swap file, your system should be suffering badly enough that the added performance hit will be completely imperceptible.

In order to avoid this sort of problem entirely with your next install, using Linux’s Logical Volume Manger is probably a good idea, and there are other Linux memory management techniques. Of course the ideal solution is to just install additional RAM.

Linux creating CD-ROM ISO image

2008-12-04T02:09:00.000-08:00

dd is a perfect tool for copy a file, converting and formatting according to the operands. It can create exact CD-ROM ISO image.

This is useful for making backup as well as for hard drive installations require a working the use of ISO images.

How do I use dd command to create an ISO image?

Put CD into CDROM

Do not mount CD. Verify if cd is mounted or not with mount command:

# mount

If cd was mouted automatically unmout it with umount command:

# umount /dev/cdrom

# umount /mnt/cdrom

Create CD-ROM ISO image with dd command:

# dd if=/dev/cdrom of=/tmp/cdimg1.iso

Where,

if=/dev/cdrom: Read from /dev/cdrom (raw format)
of=/tmp/cdimg1.iso: write to FILE cdimg1.iso i.e. create an ISO image

Now you can use cdimg1.iso for hard disk installation or as a backup copy of cd. Please note that dd command is standard UNIX command and you should able to create backup/iso image under any UNIX like operating system.

Make an ISO Image

2008-12-04T01:36:00.000-08:00

dd if=/dev/dvd of=dvd.iso # for dvd
dd if=/dev/cdrom of=cd.iso # for cdrom
dd if=/dev/scd0 of=cd.iso # if cdrom is scsi

To make an ISO from files on your hard drive, create a directory which holds the files you want. Then use the mkisofs command.

mkisofs -o /tmp/cd.iso /tmp/directory/

This results in a file called cd.iso in folder /tmp which contains all the files and directories in /tmp/directory/.

For more info, see the man pages for mkisofs, losetup, and dd, or see the CD-Writing-HOWTO at http://www.tldp.org.

If you want to create ISO images from a CD and you're using Windows, Cygwin has a dd command that will work. Since dd is not specific to CDs, it will also create disk images of floppies, hard drives, zip drives, etc.

For the Windows users, here are some other suggestions:

WinISO ~ http://www.winiso.com

VaporCD ~ http://vaporcd.sourceforge.net ~ "You can create ISOs from CD and mount them as 'virtual' CD drives. Works flawlessly with games and other CD based software. Unfortunately, it appears to be unmaintained now. Good thing it works so well." (P.B., 13 February 2002)

MYSQL FOREIGN KEY DOCUMENTATION

2008-11-27T19:17:00.001-08:00

`FOREIGN KEY` Constraints

InnoDB supports foreign key constraints. The syntax for a foreign key constraint definition in InnoDB looks like this:

[CONSTRAINT [symbol]] FOREIGN KEY
   [index_name] (index_col_name, ...)
   REFERENCES tbl_name (index_col_name,...)
   [ON DELETE reference_option]
   [ON UPDATE reference_option]

reference_option:
   RESTRICT | CASCADE | SET NULL | NO ACTION

index_name represents a foreign key ID. If given, this is ignored if an index for the foreign key is defined explicitly. Otherwise, if InnoDB creates an index for the foreign key, it uses index_name for the index name.

Foreign keys definitions are subject to the following conditions:

Both tables must be InnoDB tables and they must not be TEMPORARY tables.
Corresponding columns in the foreign key and the referenced key must have similar internal data types inside InnoDB so that they can be compared without a type conversion. The size and sign of integer types must be the same. The length of string types need not be the same. For non-binary (character) string columns, the character set and collation must be the same.
InnoDB requires indexes on foreign keys and referenced keys so that foreign key checks can be fast and not require a table scan. In the referencing table, there must be an index where the foreign key columns are listed as the first columns in the same order. Such an index is created on the referencing table automatically if it does not exist. (This is in contrast to some older versions, in which indexes had to be created explicitly or the creation of foreign key constraints would fail.) index_name, if given, is used as described previously.
InnoDB allows a foreign key to reference any index column or group of columns. However, in the referenced table, there must be an index where the referenced columns are listed as the first columns in the same order.
Index prefixes on foreign key columns are not supported. One consequence of this is that BLOB and TEXT columns cannot be included in a foreign key because indexes on those columns must always include a prefix length.
If the CONSTRAINT symbol clause is given, the symbol value must be unique in the database. If the clause is not given, InnoDB creates the name automatically.

InnoDB rejects any INSERT or UPDATE operation that attempts to create a foreign key value in a child table if there is no a matching candidate key value in the parent table. The action InnoDB takes for any UPDATE or DELETE operation that attempts to update or delete a candidate key value in the parent table that has some matching rows in the child table is dependent on the referential action specified using ON UPDATE and ON DELETE subclauses of the FOREIGN KEY clause. When the user attempts to delete or update a row from a parent table, and there are one or more matching rows in the child table, InnoDB supports five options regarding the action to be taken. If ON DELETE or ON UPDATE are not specified, the default action is RESTRICT.

CASCADE: Delete or update the row from the parent table and automatically delete or update the matching rows in the child table. Both ON DELETE CASCADE and ON UPDATE CASCADE are supported. Between two tables, you should not define several ON UPDATE CASCADE clauses that act on the same column in the parent table or in the child table.

Note

Currently, triggers are not activated by cascaded foreign key actions.
SET NULL: Delete or update the row from the parent table and set the foreign key column or columns in the child table to NULL. This is valid only if the foreign key columns do not have the NOT NULL qualifier specified. Both ON DELETE SET NULL and ON UPDATE SET NULL clauses are supported.

If you specify a SET NULL action, make sure that you have not declared the columns in the child table as NOT NULL.
NO ACTION: In standard SQL, NO ACTION means no action in the sense that an attempt to delete or update a primary key value is not allowed to proceed if there is a related foreign key value in the referenced table. InnoDB rejects the delete or update operation for the parent table.
RESTRICT: Rejects the delete or update operation for the parent table. Specifying RESTRICT (or NO ACTION) is the same as omitting the ON DELETE or ON UPDATE clause. (Some database systems have deferred checks, and NO ACTION is a deferred check. In MySQL, foreign key constraints are checked immediately, so NO ACTION is the same as RESTRICT.)
SET DEFAULT: This action is recognized by the parser, but InnoDB rejects table definitions containing ON DELETE SET DEFAULT or ON UPDATE SET DEFAULT clauses.

InnoDB supports foreign key references within a table. In these cases, “child table records” really refers to dependent records within the same table.

Here is a simple example that relates parent and child tables through a single-column foreign key:

CREATE TABLE parent (id INT NOT NULL,
                    PRIMARY KEY (id)
) ENGINE=INNODB;
CREATE TABLE child (id INT, parent_id INT,
                   INDEX par_ind (parent_id),
                   FOREIGN KEY (parent_id) REFERENCES parent(id)
                     ON DELETE CASCADE
) ENGINE=INNODB;

A more complex example in which a product_order table has foreign keys for two other tables. One foreign key references a two-column index in the product table. The other references a single-column index in the customer table:

CREATE TABLE product (category INT NOT NULL, id INT NOT NULL,
                     price DECIMAL,
                     PRIMARY KEY(category, id)) ENGINE=INNODB;
CREATE TABLE customer (id INT NOT NULL,
                      PRIMARY KEY (id)) ENGINE=INNODB;
CREATE TABLE product_order (no INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
                           product_category INT NOT NULL,
                           product_id INT NOT NULL,
                           customer_id INT NOT NULL,
                           PRIMARY KEY(no),
                           INDEX (product_category, product_id),
                           FOREIGN KEY (product_category, product_id)
                             REFERENCES product(category, id)
                             ON UPDATE CASCADE ON DELETE RESTRICT,
                           INDEX (customer_id),
                           FOREIGN KEY (customer_id)
                             REFERENCES customer(id)) ENGINE=INNODB;

InnoDB allows you to add a new foreign key constraint to a table by using ALTER TABLE:

ALTER TABLE tbl_name
   ADD [CONSTRAINT [symbol]] FOREIGN KEY
   [index_name] (index_col_name, ...)
   REFERENCES tbl_name (index_col_name,...)
   [ON DELETE reference_option]
   [ON UPDATE reference_option]

The foreign key can be self referential (referring to the same table). When you add a foreign key constraint to a table using ALTER TABLE, remember to create the required indexes first.

InnoDB supports the use of ALTER TABLE to drop foreign keys:

ALTER TABLE tbl_name DROP FOREIGN KEY fk_symbol;

If the FOREIGN KEY clause included a CONSTRAINT name when you created the foreign key, you can refer to that name to drop the foreign key. Otherwise, the fk_symbol value is internally generated by InnoDB when the foreign key is created. To find out the symbol value when you want to drop a foreign key, use the SHOW CREATE TABLE statement. For example:

mysql> SHOW CREATE TABLE ibtest11c\G
*************************** 1. row ***************************
      Table: ibtest11c
Create Table: CREATE TABLE `ibtest11c` (
 `A` int(11) NOT NULL auto_increment,
 `D` int(11) NOT NULL default '0',
 `B` varchar(200) NOT NULL default '',
 `C` varchar(175) default NULL,
 PRIMARY KEY  (`A`,`D`,`B`),
 KEY `B` (`B`,`C`),
 KEY `C` (`C`),
 CONSTRAINT `0_38775` FOREIGN KEY (`A`, `D`)
REFERENCES `ibtest11a` (`A`, `D`)
ON DELETE CASCADE ON UPDATE CASCADE,
 CONSTRAINT `0_38776` FOREIGN KEY (`B`, `C`)
REFERENCES `ibtest11a` (`B`, `C`)
ON DELETE CASCADE ON UPDATE CASCADE
) ENGINE=INNODB CHARSET=latin1
1 row in set (0.01 sec)

mysql> ALTER TABLE ibtest11c DROP FOREIGN KEY `0_38775`;

You cannot add a foreign key and drop a foreign key in separate clauses of a single ALTER TABLE statement. Separate statements are required.

If ALTER TABLE for an InnoDB table results in changes to column values (for example, because a column is truncated), InnoDB's FOREIGN KEY constraint checks do not notice possible violations caused by changing the values.

The InnoDB parser allows table and column identifiers in a FOREIGN KEY ... REFERENCES ... clause to be quoted within backticks. (Alternatively, double quotes can be used if the ANSI_QUOTES SQL mode is enabled.) The InnoDB parser also takes into account the setting of the lower_case_table_names system variable.

InnoDB returns a table's foreign key definitions as part of the output of the SHOW CREATE TABLE statement:

SHOW CREATE TABLE tbl_name;

mysqldump also produces correct definitions of tables in the dump file, and does not forget about the foreign keys.

You can also display the foreign key constraints for a table like this:

SHOW TABLE STATUS FROM db_name LIKE 'tbl_name';

The foreign key constraints are listed in the Comment column of the output.

When performing foreign key checks, InnoDB sets shared row-level locks on child or parent records it has to look at. InnoDB checks foreign key constraints immediately; the check is not deferred to transaction commit.

To make it easier to reload dump files for tables that have foreign key relationships, mysqldump automatically includes a statement in the dump output to set foreign_key_checks to 0. This avoids problems with tables having to be reloaded in a particular order when the dump is reloaded. It is also possible to set this variable manually:

mysql> SET foreign_key_checks = 0;
mysql> SOURCE dump_file_name;
mysql> SET foreign_key_checks = 1;

This allows you to import the tables in any order if the dump file contains tables that are not correctly ordered for foreign keys. It also speeds up the import operation. Setting foreign_key_checks to 0 can also be useful for ignoring foreign key constraints during LOAD DATA and ALTER TABLE operations. However, even if foreign_key_checks = 0, InnoDB does not allow the creation of a foreign key constraint where a column references a non-matching column type. Also, if an InnoDB table has foreign key constraints, ALTER TABLE cannot be used to change the table to use another storage engine. To alter the storage engine, you must drop any foreign key constraints first.

InnoDB does not allow you to drop a table that is referenced by a FOREIGN KEY constraint, unless you do SET foreign_key_checks = 0. When you drop a table, the constraints that were defined in its create statement are also dropped.

If you re-create a table that was dropped, it must have a definition that conforms to the foreign key constraints referencing it. It must have the right column names and types, and it must have indexes on the referenced keys, as stated earlier. If these are not satisfied, MySQL returns error number 1005 and refers to error 150 in the error message.

If MySQL reports an error number 1005 from a CREATE TABLE statement, and the error message refers to error 150, table creation failed because a foreign key constraint was not correctly formed. Similarly, if an ALTER TABLE fails and it refers to error 150, that means a foreign key definition would be incorrectly formed for the altered table. You can use SHOW ENGINE INNODB STATUS to display a detailed explanation of the most recent InnoDB foreign key error in the server.

Important

For users familiar with the ANSI/ISO SQL Standard, please note that no storage engine, including InnoDB, recognizes or enforces the MATCH clause used in referential integrity constraint definitions. Use of an explicit MATCH clause will not have the specified effect, and also causes ON DELETE and ON UPDATE clauses to be ignored. For these reasons, specifying MATCH should be avoided.

The MATCH clause in the SQL standard controls how NULL values in a composite (multiple-column) foreign key are handled when comparing to a primary key. InnoDB essentially implements the semantics defined by MATCH SIMPLE, which allow a foreign key to be all or partially NULL. In that case, the (child table) row containing such a foreign key is allowed to be inserted, and does not match any row in the referenced (parent) table. It is possible to implement other semantics using triggers.

Additionally, MySQL and InnoDB require that the referenced columns be indexed for performance. However, the system does not enforce a requirement that the referenced columns be UNIQUE or be declared NOT NULL. The handling of foreign key references to non-unique keys or keys that contain NULL values is not well defined for operations such as UPDATE or DELETE CASCADE. You are advised to use foreign keys that reference only UNIQUE and NOT NULL keys.

Furthermore, InnoDB does not recognize or support “inline REFERENCES specifications” (as defined in the SQL standard) where the references are defined as part of the column specification. InnoDB accepts REFERENCES clauses only when specified as part of a separate FOREIGN KEY specification. For other storage engines, MySQL Server parses and ignores foreign key specifications.

Deviation from SQL standards: If there are several rows in the parent table that have the same referenced key value, InnoDB acts in foreign key checks as if the other parent rows with the same key value do not exist. For example, if you have defined a RESTRICT type constraint, and there is a child row with several parent rows, InnoDB does not allow the deletion of any of those parent rows.

InnoDB performs cascading operations through a depth-first algorithm, based on records in the indexes corresponding to the foreign key constraints.

Deviation from SQL standards: A FOREIGN KEY constraint that references a non-UNIQUE key is not standard SQL. It is an InnoDB extension to standard SQL.

Deviation from SQL standards: If ON UPDATE CASCADE or ON UPDATE SET NULL recurses to update the same table it has previously updated during the cascade, it acts like RESTRICT. This means that you cannot use self-referential ON UPDATE CASCADE or ON UPDATE SET NULL operations. This is to prevent infinite loops resulting from cascaded updates. A self-referential ON DELETE SET NULL, on the other hand, is possible, as is a self-referential ON DELETE CASCADE. Cascading operations may not be nested more than 15 levels deep.

Deviation from SQL standards: Like MySQL in general, in an SQL statement that inserts, deletes, or updates many rows, InnoDB checks UNIQUE and FOREIGN KEY constraints row-by-row. According to the SQL standard, the default behavior should be deferred checking. That is, constraints are only checked after the entire SQL statement has been processed. Until InnoDB implements deferred constraint checking, some things will be

Mysql limit packet

2008-11-24T19:44:00.001-08:00

A communication packet is a single SQL statement sent to the MySQL server or a single row that is sent to the client.

In MySQL 3.23, the largest possible packet is 16MB, due to limits in the client/server protocol. In MySQL 4.0.1 and up, the limit is 1GB.

When a MySQL client or the mysqld server receives a packet bigger than max_allowed_packet bytes, it issues a Packet too large error and closes the connection. With some clients, you may also get a Lost connection to MySQL server during query error if the communication packet is too large.

Both the client and the server have their own max_allowed_packet variable, so if you want to handle big packets, you must increase this variable both in the client and in the server.

If you are using the mysql client program, its default max_allowed_packet variable is 16MB. That is also the maximum value before MySQL 4.0. To set a larger value from 4.0 on, start mysql like this:

mysql> mysql --max_allowed_packet=32M

That sets the packet size to 32MB.

The server's default max_allowed_packet value is 1MB. You can increase this if the server needs to handle big queries (for example, if you are working with big BLOB columns). For example, to set the variable to 16MB, start the server like this:

mysql> mysqld --max_allowed_packet=16M

Before MySQL 4.0, use this syntax instead:

mysql> mysqld --set-variable=max_allowed_packet=16M

You can also use an option file to set max_allowed_packet. For example, to set the size for the server to 16MB, add the following lines in an option file:

[mysqld]
max_allowed_packet=16M

Before MySQL 4.0, use this syntax instead:

[mysqld]
set-variable = max_allowed_packet=16M

It's safe to increase the value of this variable because the extra memory is allocated only when needed. For example, mysqld allocates more memory only when you issue a long query or when mysqld must return a large result row. The small default value of the variable is a precaution to catch incorrect packets between the client and server and also to ensure that you don't run out of memory by using large packets accidentally.

You can also get strange problems with large packets if you are using large BLOB values but have not given mysqld access to enough memory to handle the query. If you suspect this is the case, try adding ulimit -d 256000 to the beginning of the mysqld_safe script and restarting mysqld.

MYSQL CONFIGURATIONS

2008-11-24T19:30:00.000-08:00

Configure MySQL Options

Related Documentation

MySQL Documentation

Prerequisites

Last Updated for InterWorx version 3.0.1

No special prerequisites.

If you are running a version of MySQL previous to 4.1 on your server, the following system variables will not be available for modification through the NodeWorx MySQL interface: Query Cache Limt and Query Cache Size. See the variable descriptions below for more details.

Purpose

The following procedures explain how to configure MySQL options using InterWorx-CP. The most common configuration options are exposed in the InterWorx-CP. As with many of the system services, a system administrator still retains the ability to configure the service by editing the configuration file.

Procedure - Change a Commonly Configured MySQL Option

Click on the System Services menu if it is not already expanded.
Click on the ♦ MySQL Server submenu if it is not already expanded.
Click on the ◊ Overview item.
You should now be looking at the MySQL Server Management controls in the main content area.
Locate the MySQL Server Options section.
Change the option(s) you wish to update to the desired value(s).
Click the Update button.
You will see the following message at the top of the screen: » Directives updated successfully.

MySQL Server Options

Connections

The maximum number of simultaneous connections allowed for MySQL. The number of connections must be between 1 and 65536, with the default value set to 100. Increasing max_connections increases the number of file descriptors that mysqld requires. It is strongly suggested that you keep the maximum number of connections below 1500.

MySQL Dynamic System Variables
MySQL System Variables Overview
Receiving a Too Many Connections Error?

Connection Errors

The maximum number of allowed connection errors for a given host. The value must be between 1 and 999999999. If set, the server blocks further connections from a remote host when the number of interrupted connections from that host exceeds this number. A successful connection from a host resets the number of connection errors. You can also unblock a host with the MySQL command FLUSH HOSTS.

FLUSH Command Syntax

Connect Timeout

The maximum number of seconds before a connection to the MySQL server will time out. Possible values range from 2 to 999999999 seconds.

MySQL Dynamic System Variables

Wait Timeout

The number of seconds the server waits for activity on a connection before closing the connection. Values can be between 2 and 999999999. On thread startup, SESSION.WAIT_TIMEOUT is initialized from GLOBAL.WAIT_TIMEOUT or GLOBAL.INTERACTIVE_TIMEOUT depending on the type of client (as defined by the CLIENT_INTERACTIVE connect option)

MySQL Server System Variables

Key Buffer Size

The key buffer is a memory buffer shared by all threads. The key buffer size mut be at least 16384 bytes. Increasing the key buffer size will result in better index handling (for all reads and multiple writes). 64M on a 256M machine that mainly runs MySQL is quite common. If you, however, make this too big (for instance more than 50% of your total memory) your system may start to page and become extremely slow. Remember that because MySQL does not cache data reads, you will have to leave some room for the OS filesystem cache.

MySQL Server System Variables

Sort Buffer Size

The size of the buffer used when sorting table data. The minimum value is 8192 bytes and the default value is 1MB. Increasing this value will lead to faster ORDER BY or GROUP BY operations. A temporary buffer of sort_buffer_size is allocated when a thread needs to do perform a sort operation.

Information About MySQL Temporary Files

Read Buffer Size

Each thread that does a sequential scan allocates a buffer of this size for each table it scans. If you do many sequential scans, you may want to increase this value. The minimum value for read_buffer_size is 8192 bytes, and the default value is 128KB. In versions of MySQL prior to 4.x, this system variable was referred to as record_buffer.

MySQL Server System Variables

Maximum Allowed Packet Size

The maximum size of one packet. The minimum value for this variable is 1024 Bytes. By default, the value is small so as to catch big (possibly wrong) packets. You must increase this value if you are using big BLOB columns, as it should be as big as the biggest BLOB you want to use. The protocol limits for max_allowed_packet is 16M in MySQL 3.23 and 1G in MySQL 4.0.

Packet Too Large?

Thread Cache Size

The number of threads that are kept in the cache for reuse. This variable can be increased to improve performance if you have a lot of new connections. Increasing this value increases the number of file descriptors that mysqld requires.

MySQL Server System Variables

Table Cache

This variable controls the number of open tables that are cached. Table cache is related to max connections. For example, for 200 concurrent running connections, you should have a table cache of at leat 200 * N, where N is the maximum number of tables in a join. If you increase this value, the number of file descriptors needed by MySQLD will also increase. You can check if you need to increase the table cache by checking the Opened_tables variable. If this variable is big and you don’t do FLUSH TABLES a lot (which just forces all tables to be closed and reopenend), then you should increase the value of this variable.

How MySQL Opens and Closes Tables
FLUSH Command Syntax

Query Cache Limit

Sets the maximum amount of memory to be allocated for storage of old query results. The default value is 1MB. This variable is only available in versions of MySQL > 4.1.x.

Query Cache Size

Sets size of the query cache. The default value is 0. If this is set to 0, query caching is disabled. This variable is only available in versions of MySQL > 4.1.x.

DIFFERENT BETWEEN InnoDB AND MyISAM

2008-11-24T16:49:00.000-08:00

The big difference between MySQL Table Type MyISAM and InnoDB is that InnoDB supports transaction
InnoDB supports some newer features: Transactions, row-level locking, foreign keys
InnoDB is for high volume, high performance

Most people use MyISAM if they need speed and InnoDB for data integrity. You can use more than one or any combination of these table types in your database. Remember to asses the needs of your application before building it. Even though MyISAM is faster than InnoDB in the MySQL world, InnoDB is fast compared to any database engine.With InnoDB you get transactions, speed and integrity three features not usually used in the same sentence.

InnoDB has been designed for maximum performance when processing large data volumes. Its CPU efficiency is probably not matched by any other disk-based relational database engine.

Fully integrated with MySQL Server, the InnoDB storage engine maintains its own buffer pool for caching data and indexes in main memory. InnoDB stores its tables and indexes in a tablespace, which may consist of several files (or raw disk partitions). This is different from, for example, MyISAM tables where each table is stored using separate files. InnoDB tables can be of any size even on operating systems where file size is limited to 2GB.

So, what do you think about those engines?? Please feel free to discuss it.

For more information visit http://dev.mysql.com/

Thanks

MyISAM is of course the default table type i'm MySQL. It's an improvement over the now-deprecated ISAM table type. It provides a simple tree structure for quick indexing on small tables, typicall fewer than 10,000 rows of data.

There are some other types of tables supported in MySQL, most of which won't provide any noticable differences.

A MERGE table is a table that only exists in memory, and will not be saved if MySQL crashes or has to be restarted. It is, as the name suggests, a merge of two (or more) tables. If you drop a MERGE table, it only drops the reference to the merge, not to the tables that are combined in it. It's not good for much!

Another table, the one which is best for huge tables, is InnoDB. It's probably the best RDBMS out there; it's actually a whole set of drivers on it's own, and when you use it, MySQL is really just a wrapper around the InnoDB table. Slashdot and other megamammoth sites out there use it, it's fast and effecient, but the trees are pretty large, so it's not good for smaller tables.

There are a few others.. like BerkeleyDB, which isn't anything special and doesn't provide any major performance increase.

The major difference between the various table types are the data tree structures and how they're handled within the RDBMS.

In the end, you'll probably find yourself sticking to MyISAM unless you're on a very large-scale project, in which cas eyou probably woudln't use MySQL anyway

LEAN TO MAKE BETTER DECISIONS.

2008-11-06T06:14:00.000-08:00

A PRUDENT MAN GIVES THOUGHT TO HIS STEPS.

If you're still making the same mistakes at fifty that you were at twenty, you need to ask God for wisdom. “The heart of the discerning acquires knowledge; the ears of the wise seek it out”. What you are in the present, was determined by the decisions you made in the past. If you want to change your future, learn to make better decisions. Be wise; let these principles guide you:-

Never make permanent decision based on temporary circumstances. If you do, you'll regret it.
Know that you can do things in the same way and get different results, you need to be dynamic in doing things anytime.
Don't let your emotions blind you to reason. Pray, weigh things carefully and base your decision on mature judgment.
Surround yourself with sharp people and draw on their gifts, without be intimidated by their expertise.
Take the time to consider all options. What look good to you today, may not look so good tomorrow.
You can't fight successfully on every front, so choose your battles carefully. Simply stated; some things are not worth fighting for.
Take time to get all the facts; conjecture leads to crisis.
Consider the consequences of each action. Ask yourself, 'Am I ready to handle this right now?'.
Make sure your expectations don't exceed your potential and your resources. Be realistic. If you can't count, don't apply for a job in the finance office. If you can't sing, don't cut am album. Focus on what God gifted you to do. That is where you'll succeed.
Time is your most limited and valuable resource. Don't waste it.
Allow yourself a 10% risk of being wrong, A 50% likelihood of betrayal, and A 100% commitment to trust God, go forward and survive it all.

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COMPREHENSIVE COMPUTER TRAINING FOR BEGINNERS

TABLE OF CONTENT

(PHASE ONE)

Table of Content

Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 What is Computer

1.2 Brief History of Computers

1.3 Advantages of Computers

1.4 Disadvantages of Computers

1.5 Classifications of Computers

1.5.1 Classifications by Signal

1.5.2 Classifications by Size

1.5.3 Classifications by Purpose

1.5.4 Classifications by Generation

1.6 Components of Computer

Chapter two

2.0 Introduction

2.1 Introduction to Operating System

2.2 Microsoft Window Operating System

2.3 Window XP

2.4 Window XP Operations

Chapter three

3.0 Introduction.

3.1 Computer Networks

3.2 Classifications of Computer Networks

3.3 Types of Networks

3.4 Window Operations in a Network Environment

Chapter Four

4.0 Introduction

4.1 Viruses

4.2 Virus Prevention Tips

4.3 Anti-virus software and other preventive measures

Conclusion and Recommendation

References

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction:

Right from millennial past, when the early humans emerged from bartering into basic buying and selling, they have needed an easier way to calculate the value of products. This chapter focuses on what is computer, its history from early days, advantages and

Disadvantages of using computers. Also covered in this chapter are: the classifications of computers and the different components that make up a computer system

1.1 What is Computer?

Input Processing Unit Output

Output Device Processed data Input device

1.2 Brief History of Computers

Accumulation of partial results

Storage and automatic reentry of past results (A memory function)

Printing of the results

Each of these required manual installation. These improvements were mainly made for commercial users, and not for the needs of science.

Within a year MIT returns to the top of the intellectual computer community with the introduction of a greatly refined network that features shared resources and uses the first minicomputer (DEC's PDP-8) to manage telephone lines. Bell Labs and GE play major roles in its design.

With the country embroiled in a crisis of confidence known as Watergate, in 1973 a little publicized judicial decision takes the patent for the computer away from Mauchly and Eckert and awards it to Atanasoff. Xerox introduces the mouse. Proposals are made for the first local area networks.

1.3 Advantages of Computers

The following are some cited importance of the computer systems:

a) It makes work easier and faster thus saves time.

B) It can hold huge amount of information

c) It is reliable

d) It improves information management.

e) Accuracy.

f) It never gets tired

g) It can do about anything if properly programmed

h) It improves the flow of information

i) It brings about Communication

1.4) Disadvantages of Computers

1.5 Classification of Computers.

Computers could be classified based on the following criteria: type of Signal process, physical size, purpose of the computer and finally by generations.

1.5.1 Classification by Signal.

Based on the type of signal processed, Computer could be classified as:

a) Analog: An analog computer (spelled analogue in British English) is a

Form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.

b) Digital:

c) Hybrid: Hybrid computers are computers that comprise features of analog computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller and provides logical operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver of differential equations.

1.5.2 Classification by Sizes

Here we are going to introduce different classifications of computers one by one. We will discuss what are in classifications and what job they perform.

Super computer

The biggest in size, the most expensive in price than any other is classified and known as super computer. It can process trillions of instructions in seconds. This computer is not used as a PC in a home neither by a student in a college.

Governments specially use this type of computer for their different calculations and heavy jobs. Different industries also use this huge computer for designing their products.

In most of the Hollywood’s movies it is used for animation purposes. This kind of computer is also helpful for forecasting weather reports worldwide.

Mainframes

Another giant in computers after the super computer is Mainframe, which can also process millions of instruction per second and capable of accessing billions of data.

Output Device

Processed data

Input device